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elise
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Posted: 2007 Jan 21 at 1:55pm Quote elise

Merci, M. Excalibur !!!  pou bon travay sa !



 31 Mars 1896: Le général Tirésias Augustin Simon Sam est élu président d'Haïti par l'assemblée constituante. 


·         20 Septembre 1897: Emile Lüders est emprisonné, à la suite d'une altercation avec la police. L'ambassadeur allemand, Comte Von Schwerin proteste, et Lüders est libéré, et déporté. Von Schwerin demande également que le juge du procès de Lüders soit révoqué, demande que le président Sam ignore.



 ·         6 Décembre 1897: Deux navires de guerre allemands, Charlotte et Stein, arrivent à Port-au-Prince, et leur capitaine, August Thiele, Fait les demandes suivantes:



1. Une indemnité de $20,000 est payée a Emile Lüders (voir 20 Septembre), et il est admis à retourner en Haïti.



2. Le gouvernement haïtien présente des excuses officielles au gouvernement allemand.



3. Un salut de 21 coups de canon aux couleurs impériales.



4. Une réception au palais pour le Comte Von Schwerin, ambassadeur allemand.



Haïti proteste, mais Thiele répond que si le gouvernement ne s'exécute pas, le palais sera détruit et Port-au-Prince bombardée. Le président Sam demande l'aide des Etats-Unis, qui refusent. N'ayant pas le choix, Sam accepte, et les navires Allemands s'en vont.


 


Mwen pare pou m parye ke le Roi Christophe t ap kite yo bonbade, kit pou nou ta trime di pou rekonstwi pale ya avek rest Kapital la. 


An fet, pale sa pote nou trop maler; petet ke si se nou ki te konstwi li, nou ta ka mye triye e kontrole tout lespri ki pran residans nan sevel politisyen ki antre ladan l yo.



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No sé si el mundo es el de siempre Pero yo lo veo diferente Cuando tu no estas No sé si brillan las estrellas Pero yo me encuentro entre ti no hablas Cuando tú no estás... SerenadeauClairde"Moun"p.161
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ayitibangbang
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Posted: 2007 Jan 21 at 5:35pm Quote ayitibangbang

Reginald "Reggie" Fils-Aime ( (born March 1961) is the President and Chief Operating Officer of Nintendo of America, the North American division of Japan-based video game company Nintendo.[1] Previously, he was Executive Vice President of Sales and Marketing.

Fils-Aime came into prominence in May 2004 when he was selected to play host to Nintendo's press conference at E³ and opened the presentation with "My name is Reggie. I'm about kickin' ass. I'm about taking names, and we're about making games." His opening words heralded a new era for Nintendo and the rest of the video game industry, playfully dubbed the "Reggilution" and calling him the "Regginator."[2]





[edit] Background
He graduated from Cornell University in 1983, earning a Bachelor of Science in Applied Economics.

Soon after receiving his degree Fils-Aime took a position with Procter & Gamble. Following that, he took a position as Senior Director of National Marketing at Pizza Hut, where he launched the Bigfoot Pizza and The Big New Yorker.

He served as the Head of Marketing for Guinness in the United States and was responsible for all brands.

He served as Chief Marketing Officer at Derby Cycle Corporation, directing sales and marketing efforts for eight brands. He also served as Managing Director and oversaw Derby's British operations.

He then joined the world's Chinese food service leader, Panda Management Co., acting as Senior Vice President. Later, he came on board to VH1 as Senior Vice President. He was responsible for a 30% increase in ratings by refocusing the channel's content to appeal to younger viewers.


[edit] Nintendo
Fils-Aime joined Nintendo in December 2003 as the Executive Vice President of Sales and Marketing. He was responsible for all sales and marketing activities for Nintendo in the United States, Canada, and Latin America.

On May 25, 2006 Fils-Aime became the President and Chief Operating Officer of Nintendo of America after former president, Tatsumi Kimishima, was moved to his new role as Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer. Fils-Aime is the first American to hold this position.


Reggielution artwork made by a fan. A play on Fitzpatrick's version of Korda's famous Guevara photograph.
[edit] Reggilution
Fils-Aime shot to fame in May 2004 with the opening line of Nintendo's E³ press conference: "My name is Reggie. I'm about kickin' ass, I'm about takin' names, and we're about makin' games." His theatrical antics gained a cult following soon after, when following the conference, many images of him spread across the Web. Reggie is considered by some to be responsible for revamping Nintendo's public relations in North America, leading many fans and members of the press to dub his arrival the "Reggilution" (after the Nintendo Revolution, the code name for Wii).[3]
x




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elise
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Posted: 2007 Jan 21 at 6:15pm Quote elise


Son nom sonne tres haitien; pourtant, quand j'ai googlé pour sa biographie, les premiers liens choisis en premiere page (sur une liste de 978 options)  ne disent rien de son origine Haitienne. 


Voici le petit paragraph sur sa vie privee trouve @ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggie_Fils-Aime



Personal life



Fils-Aime was previously married, and divorced. Fils-Aime is the father of three children, one currently in college at Duke University. The other two live in Florida. He has a long-term girlfriend, Stacey Sanner, whom he met at his previous career at VH1. They live in a condo on the Eastside of Seattle.


C'est tout ?


 quand meme, "Reggilution" !


Merci, Aytibangbang.


http://www.p-nintendo.com/articles/B-84.html






















Reggie Fils-Aimé (Nintendo)

Fonction : Executive Vice President, Sales and Marketing

Pays : Etats-Unis

Ajouté le 15/05/2004
Le pro du marketing fera-t-il des miracles ?

A star is born !

Mardi, lors de la conférence de presse de Nintendo, vous avez comme nous fait connaissance avec un monsieur qui a toujours raison, au vu de son physique imposant. Mesdames et messieurs, voici le Terminator de la com' de Nintendo of America, j'ai nommé: Reggie Fils-Aime.



Ce que l'on sait...

Il a rejoint Nintendo of America en décembre 2003. Son rôle est de superviser les activités de ventes et de marketing de Nintendo aux Etats-Unis, au Canada et en Amérique Latine, pour toutes les consoles (NGC, GBA, NDS), leurs jeux et périphériques. En un mot, d'un point de vue marketing, c'est Dieu !

Avant d'entrer chez Nintendo, il a travaillé sur VH1, une des chaines musicales du groupe MTV, après une longue carrière qui l'a mené chez Procter and Gamble, Panda Management Co, Pizza Hut (la Pizza Bigfoot, c'est lui !), Guinness Import Co, Derby Cycle Corp.

Son action sur VH1 a permis à la chaine de gagner 30% d'audience sur les jeunes. Il y a aussi organisé un concert en hommage aux victimes du 11 septembre qui a permis de récolter quelques 35 millions de dollars.

Reconnu dans le monde de la publicité, ses campagnes innovantes lui ont permis de rafler bon nombre de trophées et récompenses. Il a aussi fait partie du top 10 des pros du marketing en 1998.

Voilà pour la biographie de cet homme qui, il y a encore 5 jours, nous était presque inconnu. Pourtant, il faut se rendre à l'évidence: il incarne le changement de cap de Nintendo, dans sa quête des trois tiers du marché : les hardcore-gamers, les joueurs lambda, les joueurs en quête de bonnes affaires.








Reggie est une star qui a ses fans.
Cliquez pour comprendre !!!



Un personnage charismatique.

En commencant la conférence avec son désormais illustre "Mon nom est Reggie, je suis ici pour donner des coups de pieds aux fesses, pour prendre des noms", il est entré dans la Légende ! Cliquez ici pour voir cette intro détonnante ! IGN lui a déjà consacré un article, et n'hésite pas à parler de Nintendo Reggie-lution à son sujet (voir l'article).

Il faut dire qu'on ne sait pas grand-chose de lui, hormis les étapes de sa carrière. Vrai papillon du marketing, son arrivée récentez chez Nintendo n'a pas fait beaucoup de bruit... jusqu'à cette semaine !

Les forums IGN se déchaînent. La foule crie son nom, des sites de fans font leur apparition. Des photo-montages sont créés. Bref, Reginald Fils-Aime fascine le monde, et on a toutes les bonnes raisons de l'être nous aussi. Parmi les meilleurs sites dispo à ce jour, vous trouverez celui-ci, riche en images et en liens vers d'autres sites de fans, d'autres articles.








Reggie est une star qui a ses fans.
Cliquez pour comprendre !!!


Avec Reggie, Nintendo a trouvé un individu trè charismatique qui fait passer n'importe quel autre responsable marketing (on pense notamment à la concurrence ;->) pour de la crotte. Imposant, il hypnotise par sa présence, et c'est surtout de lui dont on se souviendra longtemps. Jusqu'où sera-t-il capable d'emmener Nintendo ? Quoi qu'il fasse, nous allons le suivre de près, et on se joint à IGN pour le saluer bien bas et lui souhaiter une longue vie dans l'univers Nintendo !



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No sé si el mundo es el de siempre Pero yo lo veo diferente Cuando tu no estas No sé si brillan las estrellas Pero yo me encuentro entre ti no hablas Cuando tú no estás... SerenadeauClairde"Moun"p.161
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blekleroc
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Posted: 2007 Jan 21 at 6:35pm Quote blekleroc

Tiresias te pran lam mera . Li ginle pat konyn kisakitap passe an Erop le sa a ak ozetazini .


Bon nou te finn dako pou peye Lafranss kanabwa yon kob dett indepandanss . Poukisa li pat vinn ede nou ? Li pat lan intere li ke nou prospere pou nou tesa peye li vitt vitt ?


Alatraka pou nou papa !

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Excalibur
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Posted: 2007 Jan 28 at 9:11am Quote Excalibur

 


   Alexis Beaubrun Ardouin appartient à la lignée des grands historiens haïtiens du XIXème siècle. Il est l'auteur d'une monumentale Histoire en onze volumes, Études sur l'Histoire d'Haïti, dont la première édition parut en 1853 ( rééditée en 1958, avec une préface de François Dalencour ).  Son grand père René Ardouin était originaire de la Charente. Après s'être établi comme colon dans le Sud d'Haïti, il prit pour femme une indigène du nom de Suzanne Idée, dite « Suzon Ardouin », qui lui donna trois enfants dont l'un, né à Port-au-Prince le 22 mars 1770, s'appelait Alexis Antoine Ardouin : le père de l'historien.


 


   Son fils, Alexis Beaubrun Ardouin, naquit au Petit Trou de Nippes ( port situé sur la côte nord de la presqu'île du Sud, près d'Anse-à-Veau, à mi-distance de Jérémie et de Léogane ) en octobre 1796. Tour à tour typographe ( 1813 ), avocat au barreau de Port-au-Prince, juge suppléant au tribunal de cassation ( 1821 ), commissaire du gouvernement ( 1831 ) puis sénateur ( 1832 ), Alexis Beaubrun Ardouin participa à la rédaction des deux traités qui entérinèrent la reconnaissance de l'indépendance du nouvel État ; il traita de concert avec Frémont, Villevaleix Aîné et Labbée, au sujet de l'indemnité de cent cinquante millions de francs qu'Haïti devait verser à la France pour prix de la reconnaissance de son indépendance ( 1837 ). Il soutint la cause de Jean-Pierre Boyer (1) contre les abolitionnistes d'Europe,  qui reprochaient au Président de la République d'Haïti de nuire à la cause de l'abolition de l'esclavage.


 


   Lors de la chute du président Boyer, un acte mit en accusation l'ex-sénateur Alexis Beaubrun Ardouin ainsi que son frère Céligny ( 24 mars 1843 ), qui furent envoyés au cachot comme traîtres à la patrie. Il retourna à la politique en 1848, en qualité de ministre résident à Paris, fonction qu'il abandonna au lendemain du 16 avril 1848, après qu'il eût appris que son frère Céligny avait été emprisonné à la suite d'une altercation avec le président Soulouque. Il occupa à nouveau ce poste en 1860, et mourut à Port-au-Prince le 30 août 1865.


 


 


SOURCES : Bernard FOUBERT, « De la plantation coloniale à la micropropriété paysanne », in Bulletin de la Société Historique et Scientifique des Deux-Sèvres, 3e série, t. V, 2e semestre 1997, p. 449 ; Ertha PASCAL TROUILLOT, Encyclopédie biographique d’Haïti, éd. Semis, Montréal, 2001, t. 1, pp. 31-32.


 


_____________________________


 


 


(1) Notice biographique de Jean-Pierre Boyer 


 


 


 


Le bourg de l'Anse-à-Veau en 1803




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Sans-Souci
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Posted: 2007 Jan 28 at 11:24am Quote Sans-Souci

Tranche d’Histoire (quelques extraits)


Gouvernement de Dessalines (1er Janvier 1804 – 17 octobre 1806)


Partie I : idéal dessalinien ou nationalisme de Dessalines.


L’intégrité territoriale


La souveraineté nationale


L’unité nationale


La justice sociale


Restructuration de l’économie nationale


Partie II : Politique agraire de Dessalines


Partie III : Drame du 17 octobre 1806 ou drame du Pont-Rouge


Le 17 octobre 1806, le père de l’indépendance, le fondateur de la
patrie haïtienne, l’Empereur Jean-Jacques Dessalines, est victime d’une
conspiration montée par les hommes de l’ouest et du sud. Il est tombé
sous des balles assassines. Ce crime odieux a suscité diverses
réflexions chez les historiens qui ont voulu aller plus loin que les
simples arguments évoqués par les conspirateurs. Les historiens sont
presqu’unanimes à reconnaître que la question vitale de la propriété
est la cause déterminante de la mort de Dessalines. Rechercher les
véritables causes et les conséquences de ce drame, telle va être notre
démarche.


L’orientation de la question agraire du gouvernement de Dessalines
prend une importance particulière et vitale dans l’explication du drame
du 17 octobre 1806. c’est elle qui est à la base des événement
conduisant à l’élimination physique de l’Empereur. Les différentes lois
agraires prises par Dessalines en disent long. Par le décret du 2
janvier 1804, Dessalines nationalise les biens vacants laissés par les
colons et considère comme nulles toutes les transactions foncières
entre haïtiens et français datant de la période 1802 – 1804. Cette
mesure vise à enlever toute possibilité de transactions entre certains
colons qui, avant de partir, avaient passé leurs biens à des
privilégiés anciens libres sours forme de donations, de ventes, de
testaments et de baux à ferme.


La constitution de 1805 déclare que « toute propriété qui aura
appartenu à un blanc est incontestablement et de droit confisquée au
profit de l’Etat Haïtien « . toutes les lois agraires prises par
Dessalines notamment celle du 24 juillet 1805 décidant de la
vérification des titres de propriété, lésaient les intérêts des
propriétaires. Lors de sa tournée dans le sud en juin 1806, il a pris
des mesures contre la bourgeoisie agraire et commerciale de la région.
Mécontents, tous les dépossédés vont tramer un complot devant renverser
l’Empereur du pouvoir le 17 octobre 1806.


Pour avoir pris position contre les privilégiés sans l’appui des
masses, son pouvoir était devenu isolé. La question agraire de
Dessalines était à la fois cause fondamentale et cause occasionnelle de
son assassinat. Mais elle n’en est pas la cause unique.


Les mesures administratives et commerciales de l’Empereur jouent un
rôle aussi dans son assassinat. Au départ, la corruption administrative
était l’un des reproches adressés au gouvernement de Dessalines. Autour
de l’Empereur, nous dit Thomas Madiou, une foule de fonctionnaires
corompus pillent effrontément le trésor public. La gabegie était
totale. L’Empereur possédait lui-même plusieurs guildiveries et
entretenait ses nombreuses maîtresses avec l’argent de l’Etat.
Brusquemment, le scandale était tel que Dessalines était déterminé de
faire maison neuve dans l’Administraon Publique.


Dessalines que, bien avant, fermait les yeux disant à ses
collaborateurs : « plumez la poule, mais attention qu’elle ne crie »,
finit par prendre des mesures de redressement pour combattre le vol
administratif. Citons les décrets du 6 septembre 1805 et du 1er février
1806 contre les fonctionnaires pris en flagrant délit de fraude. Dantès
Bellegarde est le premier à reconnaître que les privilégiés ont
commencé à conspirer contre Dessalines à partir des décrets élaborés
par ce dernier en vue de combattre le vol administratif.


L’intervention de Dessalines dans les activités commerciales a aussi
engendré le mécontentement tant dans le camp des nationaux que celui
des étrangers. L’Etat se réserve le droit de livrer une certaine
quantité de licenses commerciales dans chaque place de commerce.


Parmi les décrets qu’il a pris dans le domaine commercial citons
celui du 1er aout 1805 fixant la responsabilité des négociants par
rapport à l’Etat, celui du 10 janvier 1806 faisant obligation aux
navires étrangers de composer régulièrement leur cargaison par tiers et
celui du 2 septembre 1806 maintenant les droits à l’importation et à
l’exportation à 10% comme à l’époque de Toussaint Louverture. Toutes
ces mesures commerciales ont soulevé contre Dessalines l’animosité du
commerce.


Le caporalisme agraire de Dessalines provoquait le mécontentement
des paysans. Le décret du 9 avril 1805 rétablit le régime agraire de
Toussaint. Le fouet, le baton, les verges, la prison sont remis en
vigueur. Le régime des ateliers, le travail en équipe sous la
supersvision d’un conducteur de travaux se maintiennent et les revenus
sont divisés en quatre parts : ¼ pour les cultivateurs, ¼ pour l’Etat,
¼ pour fermiers, ¼ pour les frais de culture. L’ancien esclave,
partisan du morcellement des terres, se montrait hostile à cette
politique qui lui rappelait l’ancien régime.


La rigidité de Dessalines et l’ambition politique des Généraux
peuvent s’ajouter pour expliquer le drame du 17 octobre 1806. c’est
l’historien Thomas Madiou qui écrit : « L’Empire sombra dans le
despotisme. Le régime de Dessalines fut une dictautre militaire dans
toute son ampleur ». Les Généraux reprochaient à Dessalines son
administration centralisée. Son pouvoir était sans partage. Tout était
concentré à Marchand.


Après avoir fait appel à Dessalines à la direction du nouvel Etat,
tous les généraux convoitaient le pouvoir suprême. Christophe, lors
d’une fête chez Dessalines, ne devait-il pas confier à Petion
: « Nous
ne devons pas nous laisser mener par ce petit danseur »
. les généraux
complotaient et Bruno Blanchet leur servait d’intermédiaire
. Ces
ambitieux ne pardonnaient pas à Dessalines son refus de créer une
noblesse dans le pays. Dessalines se considère comme le seul noble. «
je veux être le seul noble dans le pays », déclarait-il.


Conclusion.- L’orientation de la politique agraire de Dessalines a
provoqué un mécontement général. Elle est à la fois la cause vitale et
la cause occasionnelle de son assassinat. Cependant, il y a de la part
de l’Empereur d’autres initiatives ayant alimenté ce drame. Nous citons
par exemples son autoritarisme, ses mesures administratives et
commerciales, son refus de créer une noblesse dans le pays.


Les conséquences du drame du Pont-Rouge


a) Sur le Plan Economique : C’est la naissance du semi
colonialisme. La voie d’Indépendance intégrale c’est-à-dire politique
et économique recherchée par l’empereur est vite abandonnée après son
assassinat par des privilégiés. Le rôle de régulateur de l’Etat dans la
vie économique qui symbolisait le régime impérial est considéré comme
une entrave au développement du pays. La colonisation commerciale de
l’Etat embryonnaire va être entreprise par les puissances capitalistes
de l’Europe occidentale et de l’Amérique du Nord après le lâche
assassinat de l’empereur.


b) Sur le Plan Social : Ces deux ailes de l’aristocratie
haïtienne s’étaient entendues pour se débarasser de celui qui les
gênait dans leur égoisme rapace. Après le renversement, elles
conserveront leurs « privilèges » ou leurs « domaines » les feront même
agrandir par le système des dons nationaux. Le Latifundia est érigé en
système. Pour éviter toute colère des defavorisés réduits à une très
faible partie de la récolte (système du quart, du tiers ou finalement
de moitié ou métayage), des concessions sont de temps en temps faites
par des dirigeants habiles notamment Pétion (c’est le minifundia).


c) Sur le Plan Politique : Par leur union contre « l’arbre de
la tyrannie, les deux principales branches de l’aristocratie haïtienne
avaient maintenu leur alliance qui avait permis la réalisation de 1804.
mais ces principales ailes ne pouvant plus s’entendre, l’Empereur
disparu,. Offrirent à la nation consterné le méprisable spectacle de la
guerre civile. Il en résulte un schisme politique de 13 ans et la
division du territoire national en deux Etats rivaux : le royaume du
Nord dirigé par Christophe et la République de l’Ouest et du Sud
gouvernée par Pétion.


P.S. Je précise que l’expression « pont-rouge » utilisé par la
quasitotalité de nos historiens est postérieur à l’assassinat de
Dessalines. Le pont, au moment de l’assassinat de Dessalines,
s’appelait « Pont Larnage ». Ce qui revient à dire que c’est le sang de
Monpremier Mondésir Jean-Jacques Dessalines qui a rougi le pont.


Professeur Pierre Josué Agénor CADET




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Excalibur
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Posted: 2007 Jan 28 at 10:45pm Quote Excalibur

Heroes of Haiti


By W.F. Burton Sellers, 11 January 1999


The recent and continuing occupation of Haiti by military forces from the United States and other United Nations countries has once again focused attention on this hapless nation. Unquestionably the poorest nation in the western hemisphere, if not in the world, Haiti's history is a long and tumultuous one.


 


The island of Hispaniola was originally discovered by Columbus in December l492 during his first voyage. The indigenous native Indian tribes were early extinguished by French and Spanish colonists as the island or parts thereof were at various times under the control of Spain, England and France. Finally by the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 the western one-third of the island was ceded to France by Spain and the true development of Haiti as a French outpost began.


 


Haiti soon became one of France's richest colonies, with the development of large coffee, cacao, and sugar cane plantations, worked by slaves imported from western Africa by the French owners. By the middle of the 18th century Haiti was France's most valuable and productive overseas possession. However, by the latter part of the century Haiti was a seething powder keg of decaying racial relations along with corrupt and demoralizing social conditions.


 


The Negro slaves outnumbered the 40,000 ruling whites and the 24,000 mulattos by 10 to 1. Each class hated the other with consuming passion, making this country a perfect breeding ground for slave revolt. Ultimately such a revolt came to pass in the last years of the 18th and first years of the 19th centuries. On Jan. 1, 1804, Haiti became the first independent black nation in this hemisphere, one which won freedom from its masters by armed revolt, under circumstances to be described here.


 


French Revolution Lights Fuse


The storming of the Bastille on July 14. 1789 lit the revolutionary fuse in Haiti as well as in France. When the French deputies set slaves free in that month with their Declaration of the Rights of Man, the freed slaves sent delegates to Paris to obtain their rights and seek representation in the French National Assembly.


 


Delegates representing the white planters in Saint-Domingue, however, sought representation in the Assembly to the exclusion of the blacks and free mulattos, In Paris, most active in defense of the rights of the freed slaves was Vincent Ogé, a Haitian mulatto from Dondon who was resident in Paris.


 


Despairing of prevailing in France and recognized by the authorities as a dangerous agitator, Ogé wished to return to Haiti to carry on his activities.


 


Denied permission to leave France by a recent decree which refused authorization for men of color to leave the country, Ogé disguised himself, assumed a false name and escaped France via Great Britain and the United States and ultimately returned to Haiti on an American ship.


 


Ogé was joined by his friend Jean-Baptiste Chavannes in his activities in Haiti espousing the cause of the slaves and mulattos The two men soon acquired an armed following of 400 men who threatened reprisal against the authorities in Cap Haïtien unless the freedom decree was observed.


 


An attempt by 500 men of the National guard to disperse the Ogé group was repulsed. Next, a group of 1.500 regular troops armed with artillery forced the group to disband. The two comrades and some of their followers fled to the Spanish part of the island.


 


Ogé and Chavannes were extradited to cap where they stood trial and were condemned to an excruciating death on the wheel. Twenty-one of their adherents were hung and another 30 sentenced to the galleys. Thus perished, on Feb. 25, 1791, two of the early, though relatively minor, heroes of Haiti.


 


This terrifying repression did not produce the anticipated results. Instead, the mentality of the slaves changed. The words liberty, equality, fraternity, rights of man now rang in their ears. On the night of Aug. 14, a large number of slaves gathered in the Caiman Woods near the village of Morne-Rouge. There, a slave named Boukman, of Dahomian descent, born in Jamaica and an avowed vodou priest, wildly excited the slaves to bloody revolt with his rhetoric and cry of Live free or die.


 


There followed a six week blood bath when the aroused slaves killed their masters, and any whites in sight, and burned the plantations. The whites, disconcerted at the start, soon regained the initiative over the poorly armed and badly led slaves and took their bloody revenge.


 


The whole plain outside cap was bathed in blood and ruins. Boukman himself was killed on Oct. 15, 1791, in an engagement outside Cap. His head was displayed on a pike in the Place d'Armes of Cap.


 


Almost concurrently with this bloody episode was an encounter near Port-au-Prince on Aug. 20, 1791, between a force of several hundred freemen joined by 300 slaves, who had named themselves Suisses, and 300 regular soldiers.


 


The freemen-slave group was under the leadership of freemen named Beauvais, Lambert, Pinchinat, Rigaud and Doyon. A field of sugar cane about three miles outside the city shielded the whites. The Suisses set the cane afire, which encircled the whites, killing or wounding hundreds.


 


None of the rebel leaders of this engagement have been recognized postally by Haiti, but they can be numbered among the early minor heroes.


 


During the next several years there were frequent outbreaks of violence which a commission dispatched from France to Haiti by Napoleon was not able to ameliorate. The orgy of occasional fighting and destruction continued with the whites against the French, the mulattos fighting the whites and the slaves battling with both factions. Atrocities were inflicted on black, white and mulatto alike.


 


To further complicate this situation, France went to war with Spain and Great Britain, so that the eastern two-thirds of the island became involved in the bloody struggle in response to an appeal by the white French colonists and royalist sympathizers for aid against the mulattos and blacks.


 


In 1794 most of the western seaboard including the capital, Port-au-Prince, was in British hands.


 


Toussaint Emerges As Leader


Out of this melee, one Negro figure began to emerge as a leader of the blacks. He was Pierre François Dominique Toussaint . Toussaint was born in 1743 as a slave on the Breda plantation near Cap Français, now Cap Haïtien. He was largely self-educated, serving as a coachman when the bloodbath engulfed Haiti. Over the years, he had observed the tangled conflict between blacks, whites and mulattos, he had been deeply concerned over the injustices suffered by his fellow slaves.


 


Not an immediate participant in the slave uprisings of 1791, he is said to have assisted the white owners of his plantation to escape to escape to Baltimore before he became personally involved in the conflict. By now he was firmly dedicated to the Republican cause, believing that the future for his black people lay with self-rule but within the French colonial system.


 


Fighting vigorously with the blacks, he soon began to emerge as a national leader and military and political strategist. His opposition earned him the sobriquet of L'Ouverture, the opener. Henceforth, he was called Toussaint Louverture.


 


In 1792, the French assembly repealed the decree of 1791 which had given the rights of French citizenship to all free persons of color in the French dominions. When Toussaint learned of this and also that Spain was at war with France, he took service with the Spanish of the eastern part of the island assisting them in overrunning a part of the French territory.


 


On Feb. 4, 1793 the National Convention in France abolished slavery in all its colonies. Believing that this signalized a victory for all that he espoused, Toussaint returned to the French cause, bringing with him an army of 4,000 black troops. The French Civil Commission named him a General of Brigade in recognition of his outstanding military leadership. As military leader, Toussaint forced the evacuation of both British and Spanish from Saint-Domingue, even signing the convention with the British General Maitland for their evacuation in 1796.


 


Named Lieutenant Governor of Saint-Domingue by the French on April 1, 1797, Toussaint's prestige with his own race was immense. Although still lacking control in the southern part of the country which was dominated by the mulattos, he administered his affairs so adroitly that he was able to undertake a campaign to free the whole island.


 


By 1801, he had consolidated his position to the point where the French officials were virtually without authority. Santo Domingo, capital of the old Spanish colony, had been captured; all slaves had been freed. A government of local autonomy had been established under a constitution that named him Governor General for life.


 


Napoleon Sends Troops


Although Toussaint did not proclaim the independence of the island, his actions alarmed the French government, now dominated by Napoleon as emperor. Napoleon in 1802 sent his brother-in-law, General Leclerc, at the head of a fleet of 70 warships and 25,000 men to Saint-Domingue to subdue Toussaint. Against this tremendous opposition, Toussaint, after considerable warfare, was obliged on May 1, 1802, to approve the capitulation of his military chiefs.


 


At the conclusion of a truce he retired to civilian life on his plantation near Gonaives. Shortly thereafter on June 10, 1802, he was taken captive through a ruse by Leclerc and sent to France. Here he was treated as a common criminal and consigned in a dungeon in the Fort of Joux in the Jura mountains of the Swiss Alps.


 


On April 7, 1803, after 10 months of captivity, this great black general was found dead in his cell of neglect and starvation. Although dedicated to the principle of racial equality, Toussaint never proposed independence from France. He sought only self-government for Haiti in its internal affairs.


 


Toussaint is not only a national hero of Haiti, but has been recognized by other countries as a great black leader.


 


Toussaint's Lieutenant Dessalines


One of Toussaint's lieutenants in the final years of his campaigns was Jean-Jacques Dessalines. Dessalines was born a slave at Grande Riviere du Nord in 1758. He had no formal education, but later did learn to sign his name. He gained a liberal practical education, however, after running away from his masters and joining bands of runaway slaves who harassed the slave traders and the plantation owners in the forests and mountains.


 


Acquiring skill in the leadership of men, he joined Toussaint's forces when the revolt against the French began. He followed Toussaint in his various allegiances and became one of his principal officers. When Leclerc wanted to negotiate for peace, Dessalines counseled against it, but finally yielded, against his better judgment. He accepted appointment as a general in the French army and served as Governor of the southern part of the island.


 


When Toussaint was made a prisoner, Dessalines resumed the fight against the French. Now he was convinced that Napoleon intended to re-establish slavery in Haiti, despite his promises to the contrary. He fought with savage courage and cruelty. What helped him more than his armed supporters was fever that decimated the French ranks and ultimately took the life of Leclerc.


 


A siege and battles at Crete-a-Pierrot brought Haiti's next heroes into prominence. Crete-a-Pierrot was a fortress atop a hill near the village of Petite Riviere which had been built by freed slaves in the early stages of the struggle and strengthened with redoubt by the British during their occupation of western Haiti.


 


In March 1802 the fortress itself had been further strengthened into a virtual citadel under the command of Dessalines, seconded by Magny, Martiniere, Monpoint and Larose, with a garrison of 1.200, mostly former slaves.


 


In his continuing efforts to subdue the rebels, General Leclerc ordered an attack on the redoubt and fortress by 12,000 seasoned troops, veterans of Napoleon's campaigns in Germany and Italy. Repelled in this attack with the loss of 300 French soldiers and 50 officers, and with the loss of further lives in three additional unsuccessful assaults, Leclerc ordered a siege and continuing cannonade of the fortress. While this continued, hundreds of his troops were killed or died of fever.


 


Some 20 days after the initial French attack, the defenders were in desperate. They had no food, little water and hundreds of dead and wounded. The French, believing the defenders reduced to helplessness, advanced to overrun the redoubt. In the midst of this inferno what did they see but a young female mulatto wearing a red bonnet, sabre at her side, her waist knotted with a scarf and rifle in her hand, circling fearlessly in range on the walls of the redoubt shouting encouragement to the besieged.


 


This was Jeanne Marie, the wife of Brigade Commander Lamartiniere. As Haitian books record, She fought like a brown Jeanne d'Arc!


 


Lamartiniere looked in vain for Dessalines to come forth from the fortress with relief forces but only an old man, pretending to be an idiot, had worked his way through the French forces, to advise Lamartiniere that the fort was to be evacuated that night. After dark, on March 24, 1802 , the besieged rebels opened by bayonet a corridor through more than 10,000 French troops. Most escaped to fight another day.


 


Even the French commanders classified this withdrawal as a remarkable feat of arms. For his role in the defense of Crete-a-Pierrot, Louis Daure Lamartiniere is recognized as another of Haiti's heroes. The other seconds-in-command have not received similar recognition.


 


In October 1802, Dessalines arranged a meeting with Alexander Sabes Pétion, a mulatto leader then fighting for the French, to discuss the possibility of a united front against Napoleon. Pétion's loyalty to his country was greater than to his cast.


 


After a two day conference at Arcahaie, he agreed to join his forces with those of Dessalines against the French.


 


Birth Of The Haitian Flag


It was at this meeting that the Haitian flag was born. It was created by Dessalines, who tore the white stripe from the French tricolor, thus eliminating the symbol of the white man from the emblem. The Haitian coat of arms was superimposed on the blue and red fields to complete the flag. This flag was officially adopted on May 18, 1803.


 


The combined forces of Dessalines and Pétion, aided by fever among the French and with the assistance of a British naval blockade, enjoyed great success against the French under Leclerc's successor, Rochambeau, particularly in the south and the west. With 10,000 men Pétion and other leaders invaded the plain of the Cul-de-Sac on Sept. 16, 1803.


 


Joined by an additional 6,000 men coming from Jacmel on the south coast, a series of winning engagements soon led the forces to the environs of Port-au-Prince and its siege began. After three weeks of resistance, the French commander, fighting famine and the terroristic acts of the local population, capitulated and the rebels took over the capital on Oct. 17, 1803.


 


The remaining French forces, decimated by the struggles and disease, entrenched themselves behind a series of small fortresses outside the city of Cap Haïtien in the north. Dessalines gathered all the black combatants under François Capois, Henri Christophe and other leaders at Limbé, a few miles southwest of Cap, with the intention of capturing the city and driving the French from the country.


 


Capois And The Battle Of Vertieres


 


At 4 a.m. on Nov. 18, 1803, part of the forces began an attack on Breda, one of the outlying forts. Rochambeau surprised, left Cap and took a position with his honor guard on the entrenchments at the fort of Vertieres, between Breda and Cap. To take the objective specifically assigned to him, François Capois and his troops had to cross a bridge that was dominated by the fort at Vertieres.


 


Capois, on horseback, and his men met a hail of fire as they advanced. Despite a bullet passing through his cap, Capois urged his men forward. Even a bullet which leveled his horse and another which again passed through his cap did not stop Capois from flourishing his saber and leading his men onward with his continuing cry of Forward! Observing this, Rochambeau's guards applauded.


 


Rochambeau caused the firing to be stopped and sent a hussar forward with compliments for Capois! Then the battle recommenced.


 


Despite repeated and furious charges by Capois, who dealt death to many of the enemy, the battle was indecisive and Capois survived, earning the sobriquet Capois-la-Mort (Capois the Death).


 


The attacks on the fortresses continued and ultimately Rochambeau had to withdraw and evacuate the fort at Vertieres. The success of Dessaline's forces in taking the heights of Charrier, which dominated all of Cap's outer defenses, forced Rochambeau to withdraw all his forces into Cap, and on November 19 he signed a convention that delivered Cap to Dessalines.


 


Ten hours later on November 20, Rochambeau was already a prisoner of the British.


 


Dessalines, at the head of the triumphant indigenous army, entered Cap on Nov. 30, 1803. On December 4, the French also surrendered the northwestern peninsula and Mole St. Nicolas to the victors and the French occupation and control of Haiti ended forever.


 


On an earlier occasion Dessalines had been introduced to a Boisrond-Tonnerre. Though very different in both physique and education the two formed an instant bond. They shared the same violent characteristics and both were driven by the same implacable hatred of all whites. In anticipation of proclaiming the independence of Haiti on Jan. 1, 1804, Dessalines had one of his secretaries prepare the necessary proclamation.


 


When the leaders were reunited at the home of Dessalines on Dec. 31, 1803, to review it, Tonnerre felt that it was much too mild and declared it should be written on parchment made from the skin of a white! When the same group met at 7 a.m. the next day at the Place d'Armes in Gonaives for the independence ceremony Tonnerre was missing.


 


Soon found, it was learned that he had spent the entire previous night rewriting the proclamation, which was the one actually read. It was not on human parchment, but was vindictive and considered sublime by Haitians and classified Tonnerre as the father of the Act of Independence. Boisrond-Tonnerre was accorded heroes recognition on .


 


On Jan. 1, 1804, Haiti indeed became the first independent black country. Dessalines was named Governor General for life with the power to name his successor. Dessalines is now considered Haiti's true national hero.


 


Although he was a brilliant and savage soldier, Dessalines was not truly suited to governing. Not only did he massacre almost all the whites remaining in Haiti, but he exercised strong and sometimes repressive measures of control over his own people, who wondered whether they were any better off as freemen than they had been as slaves.


 


On Oct. 6, 1804, Dessalines had himself crowned as Jacques I, Emperor of Haiti, in imitation of Napoleon. As emperor, he ruled even more autocratically, dissension grew and open revolt began to appear. On Oct. 17, 1806, he was shot and killed by an unknown partisan from one of the revolting factions.


 


Pétion Asserts Himself


When Dessalines died, Pétion who had often been in political disagreement with him but had refrained from any serious interference with development of the infant Republic, began to exercise his political strength to seek a more republican form of government. Followers of the other of Toussaint's principal aids, Christophe, began to assert themselves.


 


A temporary compromise was reached with the election of Henri Christophe as president under a constitution drawn up by Pétion. This uneasy truce lasted only a short time, because Christophe began to exercise greater powers than the limited ones authorized by the constitution that restricted personal power of public officials.


 


The old racial animosities between the mulattos, who supported Pétion and the blacks of Christophe, began to flare anew. Pétion's supporters met in Port-au-Prince, impeached Christophe as President and elected Pétion to the office on March 11, 1807. This resulted into two states - one in the north ruled by Christophe as Henry I - the other in the south governed by Pétion as president for life.


 


Alexander Sabes Pétion was by far the best educated of the revolutionary leaders. He was born in Port-au-Prince on April 2, 1770, of a white father and a mulatto mother. His elementary education was modest. At 18 he joined the militia. Later, he fought under the mulatto leader, Rigaud, against Toussaint and Dessalines in the civil war of 1800. After the mulattos were defeated, he went to France where he studied military tactics and munitions.


 


When Napoleon sent armies to Haiti to reduce the power of Toussaint, Pétion joined them, because he then thought Toussaint was attempting to establish an autocratic dictatorship. It was while in this service that he was approached by Dessalines, made common cause with him, and expelled the French from Haiti.


 


As President of the southern part of Haiti for two terms, until his death from yellow fever on March 29, 1818, Pétion proved an able administrator. He gave financial stability to his administration by dividing the large plantations confiscated from the French among the men who had fought in the army of independence, thus establishing a rural democracy. He established a free school for younger children, a form of high school for boys in Port-au-Prince, and one of the first girls' schools in Latin America. He also gave sanctuary to Simon Bolivar in 1815, assisting him with money, munitions and men when Bolivar returned to the South American continent for his wars of liberation from the Spanish.


 


Fascinating Henri Christophe


Perhaps the most fascinating of Haiti's early heroes is Henri Christophe. Born a slave on the British island of St Christopher on Oct. 6, 1767, he took his surname from the country of his birth. He ran away to sea when he was 12 years old by stowing away on a French brig. He was sold by its captain to a French naval officer to be a general handyman. Ultimately, he reached Cap Français where he was sold to the owner of the Crown Hotel. He eventually purchased his freedom, joining Toussaint in the early days of the revolt.


 


Almost seven feet tall and possessed of great dignity, Christophe was a commanding figure and quickly achieved a conspicuous place as one of Toussaint's trusted lieutenants. Along with Dessalines he capitulated and joined the French in 1802 when so authorized by Toussaint. After Toussaint was taken prisoner and the struggle against the French resumed, Christophe again fought the French, primarily in the north.


 


After the French were expelled and the new republic proclaimed under Dessalines, Christophe became general-in-chief in the north. Here he undertook the construction of one of the most fabulous structures in the western hemisphere. On the top of a precipitous mountain, Bonnet-a-l'Eveque, about 20 miles southwest of Cap Haïtien, a company of stonemasons and 20,000 native peasant laborers under the direction of the Scottish engineer Ferrier, began the building of an impregnable fortress overlooking the harbor. The construction took years; it was completed only shortly before Christophe's death.


 


The gallery, in which many of the 350 cannons were located, had been brought to the fort by superhuman effort and at the cost of many lives.


 


During his reign in the north after he succeeded Dessalines in 1806, Christophe had other fabulous structures built. After having himself proclaimed king on June 12, 1811, he built the Palace of Sans-Souci at Milot.


 


This palace was built on a scale of grandeur that has seldom been equalled. The great halls of state were cooled by a mountain stream conducted under their floors. There were banquet halls, an audience chamber, an arsenal, a presbytery, barracks and even a chapel.


 


As king, Henri ruled with an iron hand. Obsessed with a fear that Napoleon's forces would return, he drove his people to finish his fortress and exacted the most trying labors, often enforced with great cruelty. Ultimately his subjects began to revolt. Christophe's health and mind simultaneously began to give way; he became partially paralyzed. As tradition has it, he loaded a pistol with a silver bullet and took his own life on Oct. 8, 1820. Thus perished the last of Haiti's four major heroes (Toussaint, Dessalines, Pétion and Christophe), three of whom became chiefs of state after the revolution that won Haiti its freedom from France. Their intriguing stories and those of other heroes together constitute an amazing panoply of tales of black and mulatto heroes who brought a new nation into being.



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Posted: 2007 Jan 28 at 10:48pm Quote Excalibur

 


   Fils naturel d'un créole blanc et d'une africaine affranchie, Marie-Françoise, Jean-Pierre Boyer naquit à Port-au-Prince le 15 février 1776, sur la propriété connue anciennement sous le nom de « Boyer » et sise rue du Peuple ( ou du Calvaire ), face à la place du Marché ou de l'Intendance. Il appartient à la classe des hommes de couleur, dite « mulâtre », et il a été le second d'entre eux qui ait exercé assez longtemps le pouvoir suprême pour que l'histoire accorde une place à sa mémoire.


 


   Après avoir débuté comme tailleur d'habits, Boyer s'engagea dans l'armée. Il montra sa bravoure en 1792, au moment où les hommes de couleur libres se réunirent aux esclaves noirs ; ensemble ils conquirent la liberté, avant que la Convention de France n'eût décrété l'abolition de l'esclavage ( 29 août 1793 ). Les planteurs ayant livré le môle Saint-Nicolas aux Anglais ( 22 octobre 1793 ), Boyer les combattit sous la direction des commissaires de la métropole et du général Beauvais : il se distingua au fort Biroton, dans la défense de Léogane, et dans des affaires périlleuses à la Grande-Anse. Lieutenant de Laplume, promu au grade de capitaine, il déserta le camp de Toussaint-Louverture (1) pour se ranger sous la bannière du proconsul de la presqu'île du Sud, le général Rigaud, au moment où éclatait la guerre civile du Sud ( 1799 ). Retiré à Jacmel, son parti succomba momentanément ; Boyer, qui n'était encore que chef de bataillon, dut alors se réfugier en France avec Pétion (2).


 


   Devenu premier consul, Bonaparte (3) voulut employer les hommes de couleur à retirer le gouvernement de l'île à Toussaint-Louverture, qui avait traité avec les Espagnols. A cette fin il leur donna des grades, mais inférieurs à ceux qu'ils avaient, dans l'expédition qu'il confia à son beau-frère le général Leclerc ( 1801 ). L'armée était composée en partie des vieilles bandes qui avaient fait les campagnes d'Italie. Boyer y fut employé comme capitaine. Il débarqua au Cap le 1er février 1802.


 


   Dans une proclamation du 8 novembre 1801, le Premier consul avait promis aux habitants de Saint-Domingue, sans distinction de couleur, la liberté et l'égalité des droits ; mais par un arrêté antérieur et secret ( du 25 décembre 1800 ), il avait envoyé trois commissaires pour y rétablir les « cultures », autrement dit l'esclavage. Le 20 mai 1802, il fit promulguer à Paris la loi rétablissant l'esclavage dans les colonies.


 


   Toussaint Louverture, qui était informé des projets du Premier consul, donna l'ordre à ses lieutenants de faire une guerre d'extermination aux français. Le 17 février 1802, le commandant de l'armée expéditionnaire mit les chefs noirs hors la loi. Toussaint fit sa soumission le 2 mai, mais il fut arrêté le 11 juin et déporté en France. Les chefs de couleur, irrités par ce manque de foi et convaincus des desseins secrets de l'expédition, s'en détachèrent. L'armée française perdit son général et la plus grande partie de son effectif en quelques mois : par l'effet des maladies bien plus que par le fer de l'ennemi. L'expédition avait échoué, et on en fit embarquer les débris pour la France. Boyer fut un des derniers à s'en séparer. Aussi ne fut-il pas au nombre de ceux qui, le 1er janvier 1804, déclarèrent l'indépendance d'Haïti ; qui élevèrent, le 25, le général Dessalines (4) au pouvoir suprême ; qui, le 20 mai 1805, proclamèrent un empereur et une constitution impériale (5) ; il ne fut pas non plus de ceux qui, en octobre 1806, déterminèrent la chute et la mort de Dessalines. Son nom figure pour la première fois dans la constitution républicaine de 1806 (6), que le général Pétion, mulâtre comme lui, fit décréter à Port-au-Prince, tandis que le noir Christophe (7), commandant du Cap, succédait au titre et au pouvoir de Dessalines. Mais la guerre qui éclata bientôt entre Pétion et Christophe amena la division de l'ancienne partie française de Saint-Domingue en deux États : l'un au Nord, gouverné par l'empereur Christophe, avec des principes despotiques ; l'autre au Centre et au Sud, par le général Pétion, véritable président d'une république. Boyer s'attacha à la fortune de ce dernier, qui l'éleva successivement au grade de colonel et de général de division. A la mort de Pétion, en 1818, il fut élu président de la république, tandis que Christophe continuait de régner au Cap ; mais celui-ci mourut comme Dessaline, de mort violente, et ses sujets se réunirent à la république ( 1820 ).


 


   En 1822, Boyer fit une expédition contre la partie espagnole de l'Île. L'armée haïtienne, forte de ses 20.000 hommes, marcha sur la frontière qu'elle franchit en deux points : Ouanaminthe et Lascahobas. La colonne du Nord, sous le commandementdu général Bonnet, et celle de l'Ouest, sous celui du président Boyer, passèrent sans coup férir les portes de Santo Domingo. Le Chef d'État haïtien pénétra dans la ville le 9 janvier ( ou février ) 1822 au son des cloches et des canons. Nunez de Carcerez lui présenta les clés de la ville sur un plateau d'argent. A la suite de quoi, on vit le drapeau haïtien flotter sur la vieille cathédrale de Santo Domingo.


 


   La France, qui craignait pour ses colonies des Antilles ( dans lesquelles elle maintenait l'esclavage ) et qui voyait l'accroissement du pouvoir de Boyer, devenu chef des Noirs comme des Mulâtres, essaya de traverser l'entreprise en faisant paraître ses forces navales à la presqu'île de Samana ; mais son gouvernement n'osa pas intervenir efficacement, et Boyer devint seul maître de l'île de Saint-Domingue. Cette magnifique situation, au sein d'une île qu'on avait justement appelée « la reine des Antilles », et qui renfermait tant de richesses naturelles, aurait dû donner à ce chef la grandeur et la modération. Il était l'espoir de tous les Noirs encore esclaves dans les colonies européennes, et surtout des hommes de couleur libres, opprimés par les préjugés des planteurs. Aussi arbora-t-il ouvertement une politique de protection à leur égard : en 1822, il donna secours et asile aux proscrits de la Martinique. Mais il déshonora son pouvoir en faisant livrer à une commission militaire un noir nommé Darfour, membre de la chambre des députés, qui avait lu dans l'assemblée dont il faisait partie un mémoire où étaient reprochés des abus à son gouvernement. Il fallait le réfuter, et non violer en sa personne la représentation nationale. Ce malheureux fut immédiatement condamné et mis à mort : cette exécution a laissé sur la mémoire de Boyer une tache ineffaçable. Par ailleurs, on s'aperçut bientôt qu'il ne respectait plus aucune des prérogatives de la chambre des députés ; que le sénat était acheté, ou composé d'après son ordre ; en un mot, que la Constitution de 1816, dont il était un des auteurs, n'existait plus que de nom.


 


   La France, qui avait négocié secrètement pour le rétablissement de sa suzeraineté sur la partie française de Saint-Domingue (8), avait échoué grâce au patriotisme de Pétion, auquel Boyer paraissait s'être associé complètement. Mais au lieu d'appeler les capitaux et la bienveillance de l'Europe, en abolissant l'absurde loi qui empêchait les Européens d'acquérir des possessions territoriales et de fonder des établissements industriels en Haïti, Boyer réprima l'essor des esprits vers un régime plus libéral.


 


   En 1825, une flottille française commandée par un capitaine de vaisseau parut dans la rade de Port-au-Prince, avec pour mission d'obtenir l'enregistrement immédiat d'une ordonnance du roi Charles X ( ord. du 17 avril 1825 ) : la France réclamait le versement d'une indemnité (9) de 150 millions, pour prix de la reconnaissance de l'indépendance d'Haïti. En bravant cette menace, Boyer n'exposait que la ville de Port-au-Prince qui, bâtie en bois, pouvait être brûlée par la flotille. Elle n'avait pas de troupes de débarquement ; de sorte qu'en se retirant momentanément dans les mornes, ou dans  une autre ville, il conservait l'indépendance de sa patrie. Mais Boyer ne fut pas à la hauteur de son rôle : il se soumit et fit accepter l'ordonnance dans une séance secrète du sénat, malgré les résistances et l'impossibilité où l'on était de satisfaire aux conditions imposées. Il envoya des commissaires en France pour y contracter un emprunt de 30 millions ( dont il ne perçut que 24 ), afin de payer le 1er cinquième. Le corps législatif vota l'indemnité, qu'il déclara dette nationale, et décréta une imposition extraordinaire de 30 millions de gourdes, qui ne put jamais être recouvrée.


 


   Dès lors, la prospérité d'Haïti disparut complètement. On ne paya ni les arriérés de l'emprunt de 30 millions, ni les intérêts du capital restant de 120 millions. En 1838, la France accepta de réduire sa créance de moitié, afin de ne pas jeter Haïti dans l'anarchie. Mais cette somme de 60 millions ne fut pas davantage payée, et il fallut qu'un troisième traité accordât de nouveaux et de très-longs délais.  On cessa de présenter au corps législatif le compte réel des recettes et des dépenses ; on lui contesta toutes ses prérogatives ; toutes les bases du gouvernement étaient sapées. Les abolitionnistes d'Europe, amis d'Haïti, adressèrent des remontrances sur le tort que cette conduite faisait à la cause de l'abolition de l'esclavage : bien loin de les accueillir, Boyer les fit combattre par un de ses affidés,  le sénateur Beaubrun Ardouin (10), dans une lettre rendue publique en 1842. Tant d'erreurs précipitèrent sa ruine.


 


   Boyer avait perdu toute popularité. La partie la plus éclairée de la population forma dans le Sud une association défensive et prit les armes. Personne ne voulait entreprendre la défense d'un gouvernement désormais condamné : Boyer fut obligé de s'embarquer avec ses principaux conseillers. Aussitôt après, le 13 mars 1843, l'armée populaire prit possession de Port-au-Prince et manifesta bruyamment son triomphe. Il n'y eut toutefois pas de sang répandu, et Charles Hérard, un mulâtre, fut appelé au gouvernement de la République. Il fut également obligé de prendre les armes pour reconquérir la partie espagnole qui s'était séparée du gouvernement de Boyer ; mais le parti noir, mécontent des mulâtres en possession du gouvernement depuis plus de vingt ans, voulut avoir des chefs noirs : il obligea Hérard à suivre la route de l'exil, et à se retirer comme l'avait fait Boyer à l'île anglaise de la Jamaïque.


 


   Après quelques années de résidence à la Jamaïque, Boyer se rendit à Paris où il s'éteignit dans une quasi misère, à l'âge de 74 ans, le 9 juillet 1850. L'ancien sénateur haïtien, Mesmin Villevaleix, prononça l'oraison funèbre. Son corps repose au cimetière du Père Lachaise (11), dans une tombe voisine de celle d'Alfred de Musset. Avec lui s'achevait une période de l'histoire d'Haïti. « Il est remarquable, écrivait Beaubrun-Ardouin, que la mort éclaircissait chaque jour les rangs de cette génération de 1790, au temps où une autre allait lui arracher le pouvoir des mains » ( Cf. Beaubrun Ardouin, Études sur l'histoire d'Haïti, t. XI, année 1842 ). Les jeunes libéraux, influencés par les événements de France, étaient en effet impatients de succéder aux « Gérontes ». Les successeurs de Boyer recevaient en charge un pays dont tous les visiteurs disaient déjà qu'il déclinait et qu'il prenait du retard dans un monde en expansion ( Cf. Jacques Barros, Haïti de 1804 à nos jours, L'Harmattan,  Paris, 1984, pp. 201-205 ).


 


 


SOURCES : Charles MALO, Histoire d'Haïti ( Ile de Saint Domingue ) depuis sa découverte jusqu'en 1824, éd. Louis Janet, Ponthieu, 1825 ; LEPELLETIER DE SAINT-REMY, Saint-Domingue, étude et solution nouvelle de la question haïtienne, 2 vol., Paris, Arthur Bertrand, 1846, 554 p. ; ISAMBERT in Nouvelle biographie générale depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours ( .. ), sous la direction de M. le Dr HOEFER, Paris, Firmin Didot Frères, 1853, t. VII, pp. 180-185 ; Père Adolphe CABON, Histoire d'Haïti, Port-au-Prince, Collège St-Martial, 4 vol., 1930-1938 ; BEAUBRUN ARDOUIN, Études sur l'histoire d'Haïti, Port-au-Prince, chez François Dalencour, nouvelle édition, 1958, 11 vol. ; Schiller THEBAUD, L'évolution de la structure agraire d'Haïti de 1804 à nos jours, Thèse Sciences économiques, Université de Paris, 1967, 388 p. + 16 p. de bibliographie ; Joachim BENOIT, Les racines du sous-développement en Haïti, Port-au-Prince, éd. Deschamps, 1979, 257 p. ; Jacques BARROS, Haïti de 1804 à nos jours, L'Harmattan,  Paris, 1984, 2 t., 915 p. ; Bernard FOUBERT, « De la plantation coloniale à la micropropriété paysanne », in Bulletin de la Société Historique et Scientifique des Deux-Sèvres, 3e série, t. V, 2e semestre 1997, pp. 435-453 ; Jacques PETIT, Généalogie de la Famille Chancy  (tenant son nom des Langlois de Chancy, famille ayant donné des officiers de marine, originaire de Champcey près d'Avranches ), 8 janvier 2000 ; Ertha PASCAL TROUILLOT, Encyclopédie biographique d’Haïti, éd. Semis, Montréal, 2001, t. 1, pp. 153-155.


 


_________________________


 


 


(1) Notice biographique de Toussaint-Louverture 


 


(2) Notice biographique d'Alexandre Pétion 


 


(3) Bonaparte premier consul par Ingres 


 


(4) Notice biographique de Jean-Jacques Dessalines 


 


(5) Texte de la Constitution de 1805 


 


(6) Texte de la Constitution de 1806 


 


(7) Notice biographique de Henry Christophe 


 


(8) En novembre 1814, la mission de Dauxion Lavaysse, Franco de Medina et Draverman, fit scandale : Louis XVIII, dit-on, ne proposait rien de moins que le rétablissement de l'esclavage ( d'après Monsieur Jacques PETIT, l'objet de cette mission aurait été différent ). Pour cette raison, Christophe aurait fait mourir Franco de Medina. Une deuxième mission interviendra en 1816 : moyennant un protectorat sur l'île, la France proposait à Pétion le titre de gouverneur. Les deux émissaires français, Fontanges et Esmangard, furent éconduits comme les autres. Au total, plus de dix missions officielles ou officieuses furent dépêchées entre 1816 et 1823.


 


(9) Selon plusieurs sources haïtiennes ( Port-au-Prince ), rapportées par Monsieur Jacques PETIT, l'indemnité aurait été une proposition haïtienne. Mais il ne s'agit-là évidemment que d'une hypothèse, qui devra être vérifiée et confirmée.


 


(10) Notice biographique d'Alexis Beaubrun-Ardouin 


 


(11) Vue du caveau de Jean-Pierre Boyer


 


 


 


Port-au-Prince dans la première moitié du XIXe siècle



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Posted: 2007 Jan 29 at 2:11am Quote rache

elise wrote:
Son nom sonne tres haitien; pourtant, quand j'ai googlé pour sa biographie, les premiers liens choisis en premiere page (sur une liste de 978 options) ne disent rien de son origine Haitienne.


Men de adress ki palé de orijin aysienne volo sa-a.
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Posted: 2007 Jan 30 at 8:21am Quote Excalibur

The rule of Faustin Soulouque (Emperor Faustin I)    March 1, 1847 -- January 15, 1859


Bob Corbett


1995



Upon the death of Riche the mulatto elite needed to continue to consolidate their power, and another puppet was called for. It didn't take them long to select their man -- Faustin Soulouque. There is a famous story (which is probably not true, but it still reflects the attitudes toward Soulouque on the part of historians, since the story is often repeated). The Heinl's tell it well:



"There runs a story that, during the days of Boyer, when Soulouque, still a lieutenant, was a place equerry, the president had foretold days to come in which 'any man in Haiti could become president, even [indicating Soulouque] tht stupid negre over there.' In this tale, Soulouque replies humbly, 'Please, Mr. President, don't make a fool of me.'"


The Heinls note in a footnote:



"This apocryphal anecdote, well cemented into the place of received history of Haiti, appears with no source or attribution in the works of Davis, Leyburn, and Rodman, all twentieth-century foreigners. We have been unable to find it in any contemporary account." (Heinl, 1978, p. 195.)


What is amply clear, however, is that those who put Soulouque into power expected someone who fit the Petion tale. And, like his predecessors, he was black, old, though only 65, and believed to be weak and malleable. He became president on March 1, 1847, and appeared, early on, to be an excellent choice for his role. He kept the bulk of the Riche cabinet and quietly did their bidding.



Soulouque was about to spring his surprise. Very quietly he was building a coterie of extremely loyal black military people. He called his special "gang" the zinglins. (Recall the recent revival of that term to speak of the paramilitary criminals in the pre-Aristide days, the zinglendo.) When he was ready Soulouque lashed out against his enemies and the puppet not only ceased being a puppet, but was soon an emperor, Faustin I, and one of the strongest rulers in Haiti's history. One can even argue that not only was he perhaps the second strongest ruler in Haiti's history, but a very clear model and tutor of Francois Duvalier, the strongest leader ever.



After Soulouque killed off and pacified his mulatto "masters," he then turned on any black leader who he suspected in the slightest of being disloyal.



Finally, having pacified Haiti herself (a process that he never considered fully finished, and he kept unearthing enemies or suspected enemies, the same thing for him), he turned his attention to a nagging problem, Santo Domingo. He wanted to reunite the country, and in the process secure Haiti from foreign influence. Three times he tried, and three times he failed. It consumed a great deal of the energy of his administration.



On August 26, 1849 he was proclaimed an emperor, and eventually in a lavish ceremony, was crowned on April 18, 1852.



By 1856 he returned back to Port-au-Prince after his third failure in Santo Domingo, his power was in decline. There had been no visible improvements in the country and the rule of Faustin I was one of a brutal dictator. Everyone was terrified of him and plots simmered in secret. On December 22, 1858 Fabre Geffrard declared himself as president and took up the banner of revolution. Finally on January 15, 1859 Soulouque and his family set sail for Jamaica.



I have purposely just sketched the barest details of Soulouque's administration. The general picture of Soulouque is extremely negative. However, I lean very strongly with those who see much more substance to Soulouque than the standard view. Below is an precis of an article which appeared in 1965 and gives what I think is a generally balanced view of Soulouque and puts him in a much more favorable light than the standard view.




------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------



"The Soulouque Regime In Haiti -- 1847 - 1859: A Reevaluation." Murdo J. MacLeod. Caribbean Studies/Vo. 10. No. 3.


A paper read at the first meeting of the Conference on Haitian Studies, Boston, April 11, 1969


July, 1995



MacLeod argues that Haiti has produced several figures, most notably Dessalines, Soulouque and Francois Duvalier, who are quickly passed over as barbaric. He ask why has Haiti produced this type. He sets out to re-examine the way Soulouque is generally understood as a way of shedding some light on this subject.



The dominant view. Soulouque was a rather old and dumb black leader, put into power to be a puppet for a group of Boyerist mulattos. By some sort of accident and animal power he rose to brutally suppress his enemies, created a bizarre royal state, carried on some fruitless invasions of the Dominican Republic and ruled as a barbaric and unsuccessful buffoon.


The above standard view raises several difficulties even in its own telling:


If it is so, then how does one account for his quick and successful consolidation of power?


Why does Soulouque get so overwhelmingly attacked for things which are accepted or even praised in other leaders. Things like:


his preoccupation with Santo Domingo.


his use of strong-armed tactics to rule.


Thus MacLeod re-examines some events, acts and motivations in Soulouque's move to power.


He was very sensitive about being regarded as a mere puppet of others.


The nation was racked with divisions and regionalism. Soulouque was deeply sympathetic to black aspirations for a share in power.


He was worried about increasing foreign meddling in Haitian affairs, especially the US's taking of Navassa Island.


This latter concern was at the heart of his Santo Domingo concerns


To keep the foreigners at bay.


MacLeod sees Soulouque's move to emperor as giving the people a form of government which strongly appealed to them.


From an economic standpoint MacLeod claims that most public officials were actually "paid" more in prestige and titles than in cash, and actually cost the state less than the Republican office holders under his successor, Fabre Geffrard.


He skillfully recognized Voodoo while working to soothe the trouble waters with the Vatican, which dated back to Dessalines' slaughter of the French and would not finally get resolved until 1860.


Soulouque was skilled in international diplomacy and played an important role in keeping the U.S., England and France suspicious of one another in Santo Domingo, thus cushioning Haiti's situation there.


Conclusion MacLeod acknowledges the difficulties of resolving disputes over WHO Soulouque really was. Virtually no official government records of cabinet meetings exist, thus:


"We are left with his policies as they are discernible, with an assessment of the men whom he used to govern, and with our evaluation of how correct his appreciation of the situation really was. In every case we must conclude that Faustin Soulouque was a man of high intelligence, a realist, a pragmatist, and a superb, if ruthless politician and diplomat. There is no denying his patriotism and his ability to impose domestic tranquility." (p. 47.)


"Of the seventy-two years between the fall of Boyer and the United States occupation mulattos governed only eight. For better or worse this is partly the legacy of Haiti's last emperor." (p. 48)



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Posted: 2007 Jan 31 at 8:39am Quote Excalibur

Défilée


 


 


Elle s'appelait Marisainte et elle est née esclave au Cap, à la rue Espagnole. Marisainte était, avant tout, une femme de guerre, impulsive, pleine d'énergie. On dit qu'elle était une sorte de vivandière, et en cette qualité, elle accompagnait, par monts et par vaux, l'armée indigène dans toutes ses campagnes. A chaque fois que la troupe s'arrêtait et que les soldats, exténués de fatigue, voulaient outre mesure prolonger leur halte, d'une voix martiale, Marisainte criait: "Défilez" d'où ce surnom qui lui resté pour la vie.


 


 


Défilée était mariée à un orfèvre de qui elle eut trois fils. L'un d'eux, le colonel Cando Bazile, officier de maréchaussée, sous Faustin 1er, sauvera de la mort Fabre Geffrard, le 27 décembre 1858, alors que ce dernier complotait.


 


 


Au cours de la guerre de l'indépendance, Défilée eut ses deux frères, qu'elle aimait tant, fauchés par la mitraille. Ce rude coup sur son sort l'a littéralement foudroyée, et sa raison sombra. Après ce drame, on rapporte que pendant de longs mois, Défilée, les yeux hagards, allait souvent au cimetière du Cap, s'agenouiller devant la tombe de ses frères, ses compagnons d'armes qu'elle chérissait, bredouillant des paroles obscures et incohérentes.


 


 


Le jour de l'assassinat de l'Empereur, au Pont Rouge, ce 17 octobre 1806, Défilée, comme à l'accoutumée, errait à travers les rues. Disposé sur un brancard de fusils, le corps de l'empereur assassiné est parvenu en ville où on l'abandonna méconnaissable sur la place d'Armes. C'est là où Défilée, aidée d'un misérable mendiant dénommé Dauphin, eut à accomplir un acte héroïque: elle recueillit les os fracassés et la chair ensanglantée de son Empereur qu'elle connaissait bien, plaça le tout dans un sac et prit la route du cimetière intérieur, jouxtant l'actuelle église paroissiale de Ste-Anne. Jusqu'à une heure tardive, on la voyait, encore à genoux, et les larmes aux yeux, devant ce qui restait de l'ombre gigantesque du Libérateur.



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Posted: 2007 Jan 31 at 8:47am Quote Excalibur

Fabre GEFFRARD


<<Précédent


 Président de la République


 Suivant >>


 


 


 


ASCENDANCE


Mathurin GEFFRARD  x Louise GEFFRARD   COUDRO-COUTRO  x   Jean LEJEUNE de la TALVASSERIE  x Marie-Anne LEJEUNE de la TALVASSERIE née BARBOTIN    x 


Nicolas GEFFRARD père  x Julie COUDRO   François LEJEUNE de la TALVASSERIE  x Marie-Claire dit Prinda 


Nicolas GEFFRARD II  x Marguerite FABRE veuve GEFFRARD née LEJEUNE 


Nicolas Guillaume GEFFRARD


Duc de Tabara


Président de la République d'Haïti - (1859-1867)


o vendredi 19 septembre 1806 Haïti, Anse-à-Veau


+ samedi 28 décembre 1878 Haïti, Port-au-Prince


 


ax Haiti, 1811, Marguerite Lorvana McINTOSH


 


 


DESCENDANCE


 


 


 


Avec Lorvana GEFFRARD née McINTOSH 


 1 ) Laurinska MADIOU née GEFFRARD (ca. 1829-11 janvier 1859)  


 2 ) Clodomir GEFFRARD (ca. 1833-ca. 1859) 


 3 ) Célimène CÉVEST née GEFFRARD (ca. 1836-ca. 1910)  


 4 ) Cora MANNEVILLE-BLANFORT née GEFFRARD (ca. 1838-ca. jeudi 1 septembre 1859) 


 5 ) Zéïla WINDSOR née GEFFRARD (ca. 1843-ca. dimanche 27 décembre 1931)  


 6 ) Claire COQUIÊRE née GEFFRARD (11 juin 1844-ca. 1870)  


 7 ) Angèle DUPUY née GEFFRARD (ca. 1846-ca. 1921)  


 8 ) Lorvana GEFFRARD (ca. 1848-ca. 1848) 


 


 


 


Notes :


 


 Il prend comme prénom "Fabre" pour honorer son beau-père qui l'a élevé.


 


Fabre Geffrard


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Fabre-Nicholas Geffrard (1806-1878) was a general in the Haitian army as well as Haitian president from 1859 until his deposition in 1867. Fabre-Nicholas Geffrard was born in Anse-a-Veau in 1806 to Nicholas Geffrard, a former soldier during the Haitian Revolution under Rigaud and governor of the South. After collaborating in a coup to remove Faustin Soulouque from power and returning Haiti back to republican rule, Geffrard was made president in 1859.


 


 


 


 


Contents [hide]


1 Presidency


2 The Fight Against Voodoo


3 Diplomacy


4 Conspiracies


5 Too much to handle


 


 


 


[edit] Presidency


His first act as president was to cut the army in half from 30,000 to 15,000. He also formed his own presidential guards called the Les Tirailleurs de la Guarde, who were trained under him personally. In June 1859, Geffrard founded the National Law School and reinstituted the Medical School that Boyer began. His ministers of Education, Jean Simon Elie-Dubois and Francois Elie-Dubois modernized and established many lycea in Jacmel, Jeremie, Saint-Marc, and Gonaives. On October 10, 1863, he reintroduced the colonial law that required the roads to be built and maintained. He also followed Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion and Boyer policy of recruiting African Americans to settle in Haiti. In May 1861, a group of African Americans, led by James Theodore Holly, settled east of Croix-des-Boiquets. However, by 1862, Geffrard began to examine the constitution and eliminated the legislature to his own benefit. He first gave himself a raise, 2 plantations, and paid his personal luxury with hospital funds and army funds.


 


 


[edit] The Fight Against Voodoo


Geffrard was a Catholic, which made him renounce any form of the Voodoo faith. He gave orders to demolish altars, drums, and any other instruments used in ceremonies. In 1863, a six-year-old girl was killed by Voodoo practitioners in a gruesome fashion. Geffrard ordered a deep investigation and a public execution was held. This case became the famous Affaire de Bizoton, which was featured in a British minister's best-selling book.


 


 


[edit] Diplomacy


In 1859, Geffrard made the first attempt in negotiating with the Dominican Republic under the regime of Pedro Santana. Unfortunately, in March 1861, Pedro gave his country back to Queen Isabella II of Spain, thus making Haitian officials nervous of a European power back on their borders. In May of that year, guerilla war broke out in Santo Domingo against Spain. Geffrard sent his personal guards and men to help out the rebels against Spanish troops but in July 1861, Spain gave Haiti a ultimatum for participating and supporting the Dominican rebels. In the end, Geffrard agreed to surrender to Spain requests and dropped all intervention within Spain territory in the east. This episode left many Haitians humiliated and angry at Geffrard because he backed down to a European nation while Faustin Soulouque would have never accepted it.


 


Geffrard, like all Haitians, supported the abolitionist movement in the U.S., holding a state funeral for John Brown. With the secession of the slave-owning Southern states in the American Civil War, Haiti was granted diplomatic recognition by the United States. During the war, Spanish and British colonial officials in Cuba, the Bahamas and neighboring Santo Domingo openly sided with the Confederacy, harboring Confederate commerce-raiders and blockade-runners. By contrast, Haiti was the one part of the Caribbean (with the exception of Danish St. Thomas) where the U.S. Navy was welcome, and Cap-Haïtien served as the headquarters of its West Indian Squadron, which helped maintain the Union blockade in the strategically invaluable Florida Straights. Haiti also took advantage of the war to become a major exporter of cotton to the United States, and Geffrard imported gins and technicians to increase production. However, the crops failed in 1865 and 1866, and by that point the U.S. was again exporting cotton.


 


 


[edit] Conspiracies


By the 8th month of Geffrard's presidency, Faustin Soulouque's minister of interior, Guerrier Prophete, began to lay out his plan to overthrow Geffrard. Fortunately for Geffrard, his plan was picked up by Geffrard's guards and Prophete was exiled.


 


On September 1859, Geffrard's daughter Madame Cora Manneville-Blanfort was assassinated by Timoleon Vanon.


In 1861, General Legros tried to take over the weaponry storage but was detained by government forces.


In 1862, Etienne Salomon tried to rally the rural community to revolt against Geffrard but was instead shot and killed.


In 1863, Aime Legros gathered troops to overthrow Geffrard but his troops betrayed him and was shot.


In 1864, the elite community in Port-au-Prince tried to take over the weaoponry storage but was later prosecuted and sentenced to jail.


In 1867, Geffrard's bodyguards, Tirailleurs, betrayed him and tried to assassinate him inside the national palace.


 


[edit] Too much to handle


In 1865, Major Sylvain Salnave began his takeover of the North and Artibonite part of Haiti. By May 15, both Geffrard and his government troops clashed with Salnave Northern troops. After using the British Navy for gunboat diplomacy with Salnave, Geffrard regime was in ruins, especially financially. He reopened old wounds between North, West, and South Haitians and brought foreigners into domestic affairs. In 1866, a huge fire engulfed hundreds of houses and business. In March 1867, Geffrard and his family disguised themselves and fled to Jamaica, where he died in Kingston in 1878.


 


 


 



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Posted: 2007 Feb 03 at 7:38pm Quote ayitibangbang

Régine Chassagne
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Régine Chassagne on stage, 2005Régine Chassagne (b. ca. 1977[1]) is a Canadian multi-instrumentalist musician and singer, and a founding member of the indie rock band The Arcade Fire, and wife of co-founder Win Butler.

She was born in Haiti, but emigrated to Canada soon afterward during the dictatorship of Jean-Claude Duvalier ("Baby Doc"), and she grew up in St-Lambert, a suburb of Montreal.[2] Her heritage is alluded to in the Arcade Fire song "Haiti", in which she sings, Mes cousins jamais nés hantent les nuits des Duvalier ("My never-born cousins haunt the nights of the Duvaliers").[3]

Chassagne earned a B.A. in communications at Concordia University in 1998[4], and went on to study jazz voice briefly at McGill University[5]. She was singing jazz at an art opening at Concordia in 2000 when Butler met her and persuaded her to join his band; after line-up changes, only the two of them were left. They married in 2003. She plays many instruments on stage, including the accordion, drums, the xylophone and keyboards.

Chassagne has also been involved with a medieval band called Les Jongleurs de la Mandragore, and a jazz band, Azúcar. She also wrote the music for the two-minute David Uloth sketch:"The Shine" [6], and contributed to the UNICEF benefit project as part the North American Hallowe'en Prevention Initiative, performing the song "Do They Know It's Hallowe'en?" along with Win Butler.

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Posted: 2007 Feb 04 at 10:58am Quote Sans-Souci

L'histoire un éternel Recommencement.




The Failure of the American Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934


Marie-Josée Mont-Reynaud

March 2002

American Marines entered
Haiti in 1915 in order to maintain peace and help stabilize the Haitian
government.  They occupied Haiti until
1934, controlling the Republic through a puppet Haitian government. This Occupation
failed to achieve its goal of building a democratic government that would last
after its forces departed. This paper ascribes this failure to the
predominantly military character of the occupation, which undermined the
sovereignty of the Haitian Republic and the development of democracy.



 



Many
American officials involved in the Occupation believed their efforts were to
aid in the peaceful governance of the country because Haitians were deemed
incapable of such. American attitudes toward Haitians were typically
paternalistic, claiming, for example “these people had never heard of democracy
and couldn’t have comprehended it had they heard.”[1]



 



This
paper maintains that Haitians did not want foreign intervention; Americans were
in Haiti because they wanted to be there, not because they had been invited,
and they remained there only by military force. The will of the Haitian people
was not expressed because Haitian political sovereignty was constrained by the
American military. This survey of the literature shows that military force was
used to impose a democracy by undemocratic means. Elections under the
Occupation were rigged; a treaty was passed by force; martial law was declared;
military tribunals were held; the press was censored; the Haitian Senate was
dissolved; the constitution was changed by an unconstitutional plebiscite, and
opposition was violently repressed. These procedures reveal the ideology of the
Occupation forces that might could make right in Haiti.



 



Ultimately,
it would be this characteristic repression and lack of adequate preparation for
self-government that would leave Haiti vulnerable and worse off than before the
Occupation. The American attempt to correct the Haitian political environment
made the mistake of using force, which only exacerbated problems. American
might did not set Haitian politics right.



 



“Haiti is
a rebellion called a republic”
[2]



Reasons
for the U.S. decision to intervene varied. Different views accorded primacy
either to strategic, military, economic or humanitarian objectives.[3]
The intervention had long been considered and planned by the United States
before its actual occurrence. For a long time there had been concerns about
German presence in Haiti as a threat to American territory, as well as various
attempts at negotiating U.S. control of customs receivership.[4]
Because of Haiti’s violent history, and the several interventions of the U.S in
the past[5],
the U.S was well prepared to intervene again. Indeed, in anticipation of yet
another crisis, the Navy Department’s “Plan for Landing and Occupying the City
of Port-au-Prince” drafted the situation calling for its intervention:



Situation
- The government has been overthrown, all semblance of law and order has
ceased; the local authorities admit their inability to protect foreign
interests, the city is being overrun and in the hands of about 5,000 soldiers
and civilian mobs. [6]



 



 



The event ultimately
provoking the United States into action was eerily similar to the Navy
Department scenario. On July 27th 1915, Haiti’s president, Vilbrun Guillaume
Sam ordered 167 political prisoners killed. A mob, outraged at this “butchery”,[7]
invaded the French Legation where President Sam was hiding and mutilated his
body in the street.[8] This
exceptionally barbaric event paved the way for the U.S. marines to enter,
ostensibly to protect American property and interests. The USS Washington
under Rear Admiral William B. Caperton landed in Port-au-Prince.[9]
An ex-U.S. marine reflected, “We had a perfect right to go into Haiti, just as
I believe that the police have a right to go into the house of any man who
maintains a nuisance.[10] On the
other hand, members of the Haitian Union Patriotique, an organization of
elite Haitian nationalists, felt that this intervention was unwarranted.[11]
Dantes Bellegarde, diplomat and leading member of the Union, deemed the
intervention “in violation the right of the people and in contempt of Haiti’s
sovereignty.”[12]



 



Although
there was confusion among the U.S. leadership about “what we ought to do or
what we legally can do,”[13]
orders were given to protect if not seize government money[14]
and to assure the Haitian people that the United States had “no design on the
political or territorial integrity of Haiti”.[15]
Shortly thereafter, American marines took charge of Haitian customs houses and
Caperton declared martial law[16]
and press censorship.[17]
The American Occupation of Haiti had begun.



 



“Primitive African Peasants”



American
officials who entered Haiti in 1915 came with preconceived ideas about the
African race and its capacity for self-government.[18]
In addition to skewed racial perceptions[19],
the Americans also arrived believing that their role was, among other things,
to teach a recalcitrant child nation to behave like a mature, democratic
nation.  Americans believed the Haitians
to be “primitive African peasants” to whom they had a “duty to develop their
political capacity,”[20]
and whom they would teach to govern so that Haiti would “be fit to enter the
family of nations.”[21]
Smedley Butler, Colonel at the time, explained how the Marines saw themselves
as “the trustees of a huge estate that belonged to minors”[22].
With such a mind-set, the United States “set out to spread the blessings of a
stable government of law”[23]
in Haiti.



 



Teaching Democracy with Undemocratic Means



An
examination of United States procedures in Haiti reveals the use of physical
intimidation to forcibly mold policies to U.S. interests, evident in the
American involvement in the election of the Haitian President and the signing
of the Haitian-American treaty. These two examples illustrate the dictatorial,
authoritarian and unconstitutional practices, and the bullying attitude of the
Americans towards the Haitian government. 



 



With
the passing of Guillaume Sam in 1915, Haiti needed a new President and the
United States sought a candidate it could support to maintain order. Of the
several candidates, one, Dr. Rosalvo Bobo, was eliminated as hostile to United
States interests and leader of caco rebel groups;[24]
a second, J-N. Leger, an otherwise suitable candidate, refused due to patriotic
inclinations;[25] a third
candidate, Phillipe Sudre Dartiguenave, appeared to be more compliant.[26]
Not surprisingly, U.S. Secretary of the Navy, Josephus Daniels telegrammed “The
U.S prefers election of Dartiguenave.” He later noted, “Of course, you and I
know that this was equivalent to America making Dartiguenave President”.[27]
As the National Assembly selected Dartiguenave on August 12th, “the
Marines stood in the aisles with their bayonets”.[28]
Their commander, Colonel Butler, reflected “His Excellency Phillipe Sudre
Dartiguenave was put in office in September. I won’t say we put him in. The
State department might object. Anyway, he was put in.”[29]



 



President
Dartiguenave was soon presented with a treaty, which was to be signed without
modification.[30] The treaty
provided for U.S. control of customs, an American Financial Advisor,
establishment of a Haitian gendarmerie, and American aid in the development of
sanitation, agriculture, and public works. The sole mention of military force
permitted its use only to protect the country from foreign invasion.[31]
The U.S. threatened the reluctant Dartiguenave to sign the treaty quickly or
risk the imposition of military government. Recognizing that he had no other
choice, Dartiguenave signed but the National Assembly demanded revisions and
stalled ratification. The U.S., in control of the Haitian treasury, promptly
withheld the legislators’ salaries.[32]
Thus, Caperton negotiated the treaty by physical intimidation and coercion.[33]



 



These
coercive methods violated “every canon of fair and equal dealing between
independent sovereign nations and of American professions of international good
faith”.[34]
Secretary Lansing himself had misgivings: “I confess that this method of
negotiation… does not meet my sense of a nation’s sovereign rights and is more
or less an exercise of force and an invasion of Haytian independence.”[35]
Given such financial and military pressure, a declaration of martial law and
the imprisonment of journalists, Pierre Hudicourt, a member of the Union
Patriotique
, rightly questioned whether the approval of the treaty could
possibly be the free expression of the Haitian people.[36]
Indeed, this forced treaty marked the beginning of repression of the Haitian
voice and will through coercion. These examples of U.S. policies were not good
lessons in democracy, but rather a usurpation of Haitian political
independence.



 



Fantôme
d’autorité



          Under the terms of the treaty, the
Americans controlled everything in Haiti, except education and the courts.[37]
These conditions made the Haitian government a phantom authority[38]
without any real power of its own. Laws needed the approval of the American
High Commissioner, who effectively blocked many Haitian initiatives from being
enacted.[39]
Members of the Union Patriotique, including Dantes Bellegarde and Pierre Hudicourt,
criticized this state of affairs. According Bellegarde, “nothing would be
undertaken in Haiti, the credit for which could not be wholly attributed to the
Americans.”[40] With the
treasury in American hands, the Haitian government did not even have discretion
over the use of public funds. Dartiguenave was “no more than a toy in the hands
of … the High Commissioner who has absolute omnipotence.”[41]
High Commissioner and Brigadier General of the Navy, John J. Russell kept a
troop of Marines housed behind the Presidential Palace.[42]
The American military was no mere presence; it reflected the strong union of
politics and power in the American Occupation of Haiti.



 



Non Participatory Democracy



Under
the Occupation, Haitians were not able to be actively involved in government as
would be expected in a democracy. Haitians were barred from the higher offices
in the administration, which were filled with Americans. American officials
such as the Financial Advisor had much more power than was outlined in the
treaty; instead of merely guiding the Haitian government in developing
successfully, they had “exceeded their role as counselors and … transformed
themselves into veritable dictators.”[43]
With the Haitian Senate dissolved in 1916, the country was essentially left in
the hands of Dartiguenave and a handful of cabinet members, who were heavily
influenced by American interests. Thus the Haitian masses did not benefit from
representation, nor were they able to participate in government through
elections, which were restricted by Marines. In one instance, the Marines
closed polls on election day, to the protest of the voters who tried to enter
anyways, and the Marines resorted to violence to disperse the crowd.[44]
Dantes Bellegarde protested this exclusion of Haitians from the politics of
their own country, exclaiming “What a way to teach us self control, by taking
from us all control of our affairs!”[45]
How could the Haitians be taught the principles of a democratic government if
they were not participating in its administration?



 



Sovereignty



          The Haitian Republic won its
independence from France in 1804, and it was determined to keep it. The
intervention of American marines in 1915 undermined that hard-earned freedom.
Although the American government claimed its entry was solely to benefit  the Haitians, to establish peace and a
democratic government,[46]
it stole from the Haitians what was in fact most dear to them. The Haitians
were very protective of their sovereignty, as represented by the attitude of
one Haitian lawyer, when he said, “What characterizes our political existence,
our personality, is our independence. We must therefore try to preserve it by
every means possible.”[47]
Thus, during a century of government overthrows, revolutionary forces had been
careful to avoid situations that would prompt foreign intervention, by never
harming foreigners and consistently maintaining payment on foreign debts.[48]
Haiti did not want the Occupation because it directly threatened its political
sovereignty, so vital and cherished by its people.



 



The Repression of the Haitian Voice



Opposition
to the Occupation began right after the Marines disembarked. Rebels, termed
“cacos” by the Americans, vehemently tried to resist American control of Haiti.
In response, the Haitian and American governments began a vigorous campaign to
disband the rebel armies.
[49]



 



Charlemagne
Péralte, a prominent caco leader opposed to Dartiguenave, rallied caco support
to “drive the invaders into the sea and free Haiti”.[50]
His attacks, aimed at isolated posts of guards and gathering more advanced
weapons were recognized as a considerable threat. The repression of caco rebels
began with the difficult task to “Get Charlemagne.”[51]
Following his betrayal, Péralte was trapped and killed on November 1st
1919 and with him died much of caco resistance. Péralte’s naked body was set on
a door, in a semblance of crucifixion, and left as an example to other cacos.
In the killing of Péralte, Americans displayed the same brutality that they had
found so shocking when exhibited by Haitians in the murder of Guillaume Sam.[52]



 



In
the campaign to free Haiti of “banditry,”[53]
large numbers of cacos were killed, with estimates ranging from 1,500[54]
in the most conservative accounts to 3,000[55].
Some sources also suggest that up to 5,500 Haitians died in forced labor camps
under the corvée system operating under the Occupation.[56]
The corvée was a law contained in the rural code of the Constitution
that required citizens to work up to 3 days per year on the public roads to
maintain them, or pay a tax[57].
The Occupation used this clause to justify raids and remove men from their
families to work in marginal conditions for months at a time.  This system was reminiscent of the
conditions of slavery under the French; it seemed as though the Americans were
forcefully keeping the Haitians in bondage to serve their interests.[58]
To maintain worker morale, there were “weekly pep talks by Dartiguenave and his
cabinet ministers whom Smedley (Butler) brought out to ‘impress upon (the
workers) that they were doing this for their country and not for the white
man.’”[59]



 



In
response to opposition from vocal political dissidents, Admiral Caperton had
declared martial law and strongly censored the press back in 1915.[60]
Beyond a mere lack of freedom of speech, journalists were also arrested and
incarcerated for inflammatory articles and their presses were shut down[61].
When the editors of several prominent Haitian newspapers were imprisoned, they
asked the editor of The Nation to “let the American public know how the
Haitian people is forbidden to cry when it is being crushed.”[62]
When news of these circumstances returned to the U.S., many Americans raised
objections to such authoritarian American policies as “clear violations of
international law and of our own constitution.”[63]
Riots against the Occupation provoked also Marine reprisal, as in Aux Cayes in
1929. In order to dissolve the encroaching crowd of protesters, Marines shot
into the unarmed mob killing at least two dozen people.[64]
This incident became known as the Cayes Massacre, and served as the chief
example of possibly (in many cases unwarranted) American brutality. Press
censorship and the campaign against the cacos are examples of the Occupation’s
use of force to stifle dissent and the voice of the Haitian people.



 



“Bulwark to peace and security”



The
Marines left Haiti believing they left behind “a bulwark to the peace and
security of the Western Hemisphere.”[65]
In a popular narrative of the day by ex-Marine John Craige, this legacy is
described:



“For the first time in her history the Haitian Republic saw an
Inauguration Celebration when both the incoming and outgoing president took
part in the ceremonies in a perfectly peaceful manner. Both on the same
platform, both alive, both free and both reasonably happy. How the old times
had changed and the old order of things had passed away.”[66]



 



However,
beneath this calm surface, “resentment against the American Occupation had long
been smoldering”[67] and burst
after the Marines left. Dantes Bellegarde claims the United States didn’t even
establish the peace and order so tooted by the imperialists: “Haiti does not
have peace. Peace, real peace, is not material order imposed by the force of
bayonets.”[68] Indeed,
Haiti’s subsequent turbulent history
reveals the failure of the American Occupation to establish a
secure democratic government.



 



Haiti - a New Order?



Despite
John Craige’s wishful thinking, Haiti’s violent history repeated itself. The
first president elected when the Haitians were on their own, Elie Lescot fell
under protest from the masses, at which point the army assumed power, and
ushered the next President in. Subsequent presidents came and went by a series
of such coup d’états, culminating in the Duvalier’s dictatorial reign in the
1950s. The Gendarmerie, the American-trained Haitian police force, facilitated
these years of bloody coups and dictatorship. While hailed as one of the great
achievements of the Occupation, the Gendarmerie became a tool in the hands of
politicians who bought their support to overthrow governments and bring new
presidents into power.  Indeed, the
rulers who succeeded each other violently from 1951 to 1958 (Paul Magloire,
Leon Cantave and Antonio Kebreau) had been trained by American Marines in
politics and crowd control and graduated from the American Military School in
Haiti in 1931.[69] This
presidential parade illustrates that the Occupation failed to teach Haitians
the tools to maintain a democracy. Instead of fostering democracy, the
Occupation championed military might, schooled dictators and trained Haitians
to respond to force: “We are teaching them to accept military control as
supreme law, and to acquiesce in the arbitrary use of superior power.”[70]



 



The
Occupation failed to transform the underlying political system in Haiti.
Rather, it perpetuated the way power changes hands by force, and reinforced
“the tradition that power comes out of the hand holding a gun.”[71]
A Haitian Creole proverb “Konstitisyon se papye, bayonèt se fè” (“A
constitution is paper, a bayonet is steel”) speaks to this legacy of Haiti’s history.
The ideology of the American Occupation that “might makes right” ultimately
failed to set government right in Haiti.



 



 















Endnotes



[1] John H. Craige, Black
Baghdad
(New York: Minton, Balch & Co., 1933), 15.







[2] John W Blassingame, “The
Press and American Intervention in Haiti and the Dominican Republic,
1904-1920.” Caribbean Studies 9, no. 2. (1969), 30. quoting from the
September 5, 1915, Chicago Tribune.







[3] H.P. Davis, Black
Democracy: The Story of Haiti
(New York: Dial Press, 1928), 171-2. Emily
Greene Balch, Occupied Haiti (New York: Writers Publishing Co., 1927),
20-1. Joseph Chatelain, La Banque nationale: son histoire, ses problemes,
Collection du Tricinquantenaire de l’Independence d’Haiti (Lausanne: Imprimerie
Held.1954), 107-8. Recognizing American economic motivations, Colonel Smedley
Butler felt that he was “a high class muscle man for Big Business, for Wall
Street and the bankers.” Hans Schmidt, Maverick Marine. (Lexington, KY:
The University Press of Kentucky, 1987), 2.







[4] Paul H. Douglas, “The
American Occupation of Haiti I,” Political Science Quarterly 42 (1927):
229-232. Balch, 1927:21. Michel-Rolph Trouillot Haiti: State Against Nation. (New York: Monthly Review Press,
1990), 100. Raymond Leslie Buell, “The American Occupation of Haiti,” Foreign
Policy Association Information Service
5, no. 15 (1929): 337-8.







[5] Alex Dupuy, Haiti in the World Economy:
Class, Race and Underdevelopment since 1970
.  (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 117-8. John H.
Craige, Cannibal Cousins (New York: Minton, Balch & Co., 1934),
16-24. Lowell Thomas, Old Gimlet Eye: The Adventures of Smedley D. Butler
as told to Lowell Thomas (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1933), 181.







[6] Schmidt, The United
States Occupation of Haiti
, 1915-1934 (New Brunswick: Rutgers
University Press, 1971), 64.







[7] Davis, 165.







[8] W.B. Seabrook The Magic
Island
(New York: Literary Guild, 1929), 281-2: “The mob, of course, simply
tore him to pieces. Mostly they used their hands. But one woman cut off his
head with a machete and marched with it. Another woman, they say, ripped out
his heart and marched, tearing it to shred with her teeth. Ropes were fastened
to the torso, and it was dragged through the streets.”







[9] Information from whole
paragraph summarized in various sources: Buell 1929, 340-2. Davis 1928 161-72.
Robert Debs Heinl Jr. and Nancy Gordon Heinl, Written in blood: The Story of
the Haitian People, 1492-1971
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1978) 406-22.







[10] Craige 1934, 60.







[11] Dantes Bellegarde claims
“the United States intervened in the domestic affairs of the Republic of Haiti
in July 1915, although the Haitian people had committed no violation of the
rules of international law and had not imperiled the lives of interests of
American citizens” Dantes Bellegarde, “Haiti Appeals to the World.” The
Nation
117, no. 3051 (1923): 750







[12] Dantes Bellegarde, Pour
une Haitie heureuse
. Vol. 2 (Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Cheraquit, 1929),
5. translated from the French







[13] Heinl, 406.







[14] Captain Edward L. Beach
suggested, “Take up your quarters in the Legation… Give what orders you deem
necessary… Find out where government money is kept. Take any necessary measure
to protect it.” Heinl, 407.







[15] Arthur C. Millspaugh, Haiti
Under American Control, 1915-1930
(Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1931),
40.







[16] In his declaration of
martial law, Admiral Caperton proclaimed himself “invested with the power and
responsibility of the government in all its functions and branches throughout
the territory,” Millspaugh, 60.







[17] “The freedom of press will
not be interfered with, but license will not be tolerated. The publishing of
false or incendiary propaganda against the Government of the United States or
the Government of Haiti … or matter which tends to disturb the public peace
will be dealt with by military courts.” Heinl, 426







[18] Secretary Lansing’s
assessment of the
African
race’s inability to self-govern was due to
“an inherent tendency toward savagery and a physical
in ability to live a civilized life.” Galeano 1996







[19] When Williams Jennings Bryans,
then Secretary of State, is first briefed on Haitian history he exclaims: “Dear
me, think of it! Niggers speaking French!” Heinl, 388







[20] Medill McCormick, “Our
Failure in Haiti,” The Nation 111, no. 2891 (1920):615.







[21] Rayford W. Logan, “Haiti:
the Native Point of View,” Southern Workman 58, No. 1 (Hampton Institute:
1929): 39. Rayford W. Logan similarly likened the American intervention in
Haiti to the way one would resolve a quarrel between children, by portraying
the “self-appointed redeemers’” attitude thus: “You can’t squabble anymore… Do
what I tell you. Although I am of a different and superior race, although I do
not speak your language, I know what is best for you. I am going to pay off you
debt out or your money; and make new loans for you… We are going to teach you
how to govern yourselves so that you will be fit to enter the family of
nations.”







[22] Butler cited in Schmidt
1978, 89.







[23] Editors, “Editorial
Paragraphs,” The Nation 122, (1926): 167.







[24] Editors, “The Rape of
Haiti,” The Nation
113, no. 2940 (1921): 548. Lowell 933, 182.







[25] “I cannot bind myself in
advance to any terms that the U.S. will demand. I must be in a position to
defend Haiti’s interests. I am for Haiti; not for the United States.” “The Rape
of Haiti,” 548.







[26] Ibid: According to Caperton,
Dartiguenave “realizes Haiti must agree to any terms laid down by the U.S.
(and) professes to believe any terms demanded will be for Haiti’s benefit”.







[27] Secretary of the Navy,
Josephus Daniels in Schmidt 1971, 73.







[28] Thomas 1933, 182.







[29] Ibid.







[30] Heinl, 418.







[31] James Weldon Johnson,
discussing article XIV of the treaty, finds it ironic that “this clause which
the Haitians had a right to interpret as a guarantee to them against foreign
invasion should first be invoked against the Haitian people themselves, and
offer the only peg on which any pretense to a right of military domination can
be hung.” Self-determining Haiti, I: The American Occupation.” James Weldon
Johnson, “Self-Determining Haiti, I: The American Occupation.” The Nation 111,
no. 2878 (1920): 237.







[32] Editors, “The Concession of
the National City Bank” The Nation 111, no. 2880 (1920): 310. Heinl, 423







[33] In a message of September 8th,
Caperton wrote: “Successful negotiation of treaty is prominent part of present
mission. After encountering many difficulties treaty situation at present looks
more favorable than usual. This has been effected by exercising military
pressure at propitious moments in negotiations.” Cited in “The Rape of Haiti,”
1921, 552.







[34] Report by 24 American
lawyers presented to the Secretary of State, entitled “The Seizure of Haiti by
the United States,” cited in Davis, 353-4.







[35] cited in Schmidt 1971, 74.







[36] Pierre Hudicourt, Anexion
de la Republica de Haiti por los Estados Unidos del Norte
[Memorandum
dedicado a la Quinta Conferencia Panamericana de Santiago de Chile en nombre de
la Union Patriotica de Haiti] (Santiago: Casa Amarilla, 1923), 21. Translated
from the Spanish







[37] Complete Original Treaty in
E. Mathon, Annuaire de Legislation Haïtienne (Port-au-Prince:
L’imprimerie de l’Abeille, 1916), xii-xvi.







[38] Georges Sylvain, Dix
Années de Lutte: Pour la Liberté 1915-1925
. Vol. 1 (Port-au-Prince, Henri
Deschamps, [1950]), 81.







[39] Balch, 32.







[40] Bellegarde 1929b, 242.







[41] Huddicort, 23. Translated
from Spanish.







[42] Balch, 32-3.







[43] Dantes Bellegarde 1923:750.







[44] “The morning of election
day, in Port au Prince, the voting places were closed and guarded by the police
and a marine officer called Lieutenant Beale. A candidate for the mayoralty,
Mr. Windsor Bellegarde made an appeal to the dean of the Court of First
Instance and the latter issued an ordinance… ordering that the doors of the
voting places be open and the election held. The Chief of the Constabulary, an
American officer, refused to obey the peremptory order of the court. In the
afternoon, the voters were brutally dispersed and beaten by Beale and his
policemen. All over the country, the Government acted in the same way. In the
town of Leogane the constables fired on the voters, wounding several of them
dangerously. No representatives and no senators were elected and taxation is
going in Haiti without representation.” Perceval Thoby, "Haiti Misruled” The
Nation
122, no. 3170 (1926): 376.







[45] Dantes Bellegarde, La
Republique d’haiti et les Etats-Unis devant la Justice Internationale
(Paris:
Librairie de Paris-Lires, 1924), 16.







[46] Captain Beach’s statement
to the Legislature on August 11th 1915: “What has been done as well
as what will be done, is conceived in an effort to aid the people of Haiti in
establishing a stable Government and in maintaining domestic peace throughout
the Republic.” Mathon, ix: translated from the French.







[47] Magdaline W. Shannon, Jean
Price Mars, the Haitian Elite and the American Occupation, 1915-1935
(London:
St. Martin’s Press, 1996), 6.







[48] Douglas, 232.







[49] Harry Johnson, “Haiti and
its regeneration by the United States.” The National Geographic Magazine,
(Dec. 1920)
:
506.







[50] Péralte cited in Heinl,
452.







[51] Captain H.H. Hanneken later
reflected upon being given this order: “It was a pretty big order. It meant
running down one Haitian out of several millions of Haitians in a country as
big as the State of New York. And that one Haitian was surrounded by his
friends, operating in a country almost entirely sympathetic to him.” Heinl,
456.







[52] This earned the U.S,
military the nickname “cacos en kaki” [cacos in khaki] Roger Gaillard, Les
Blancs Debarquent.
Vol. 6, Charlemagne Péralte, le caco (Port-au-Prince:
Imprimerie le Natal, 1982), 38.







[53] Patrick Bellegarde-Smith, Race,
Class and Ideology: Haitian Ideologies for Underdevelopment, 1806-1934
(New
York: The American Institute for Marxist Studies, 1982), 19.







[54] as Reported by the
Senatorial Investigation Committee. Suzy Castor, La ocupación norteamericana
de Haití y sus consequencias (1915-1934)
(Mexico, Siglo XXI editores,
1971), 138.







[55] James Weldon Johnson,
“Self-Determining Haiti, IV: The Haitian People.” The Nation 111, no.
2882 (1920) available from haiti_occupation_series_03.shtml







[56] Trouillot, 106.







[57] Dantes Bellegarde, Les
Blancs Debarquent. Vol. 5, Hinche Mise en Croix
(Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie
le Natal, 1982), 229-30.







[58] Paul H. Douglas claimed
that the construction of roads largely benefited the American Marines who used
them to trek across the country hunting down cacos. Douglas, 378.







[59] Schmidt 1987, 92.







[60] Heinl 1978.







[61] Editors, “The Press in
Haiti,” The Nation 125, no.3241(1927):167-168.







[62] Moravia et al., “A Voice
from a Haitian Jail,” The Nation 125 no.3241: (1927): 168.







[63] The Seizure of Haiti by the
United States cited in Davis, 353. However, Carl Kelsey, an observer in Haiti,
suggested that the censorship of press of the Americans was not in fact as
oppressive as it was made out to be. He explains, “In pre-occupation days no
paper dared criticize the government unless it could get ample protection and
editors were often arrested and papers seized. The establishment of censorship,
therefore, had little real effect on their activities but it gave a chance for
an argument that might appeal to Americans at home.” Carl Kelsey, “The American
Intervention in Haiti.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and
Social Science
vol. C (1922): 140.







[64] L.J. de Bekker, “The
Massacre at Aux Cayes” The Nation 130, no. 3376:308-10.







[65] Sheperd, Lemuel C. in James
H. McCrocklin, Garde d’Haiti (Menasha, WI: George Banta Company, 1956),
v.







[66] Craige 1934, 101-3.







[67] Schmidt 1971, 205.







[68] Dantes Bellegarde, L'occupation
americaine d'Hayiti, ses consequences morales et economiques

(Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Cheraquit, 1929), 11. Translated from the French.







[69] Trouillot, 106.







[70] Balch, 153.







[71] Trouillot, 104.











Bibiliography of Works Consulted
and Works Cited





Primary Sources:



 



Balch, Emily Greene, ed.



             1927  Occupied Haiti. New York: Writers
Publishing Co.



 



Bellegarde, Dantes



1923       
"Haiti Appeals to
the World." The Nation 117, no. 3051: 750.



 



1924              La Republique d’haiti et les Etats-Unis devant la Justice
Internationale.



Paris: Librairie de Paris-Lires.



 



1929a  L'occupation americaine d'Hayiti, ses
consequences morales et economiques.
Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie Cheraquit.



 



1929b  Pour une Haitie heureuse. Vol. 2:
Port-au-Prince, Haiti: Imprimerie Cheraquit.



 



1936    Haiti and her Problems; Four
Lectures,
Delivered at the University of Puerto Rico, Ibero American
Institute of the University, April.Imprint: Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico:
University of Puerto Rico Press.



 



Buell, Raymond Leslie



1929
   “The American Occupation of Haiti,” Foreign
Policy Association Information Service
5, no. 15 (Oct. 2, 1929): 327-92.



 



Craige, John H.



1933       
Black Baghdad, New York: Minton, Balch & Co.



 



1934       
Cannibal Cousins, New York: Minton, Balch & Co.



 



Davis, H.P.



1928       
Black Democracy: The Story of Haiti, New York: Dial
Press.



 



De Bekker, L. J.



1929       
“The Massacre at Aux Cayes.” The Nation 130, no.
3376:308-310.



 



Departement de la Justice



1917    Bulletin des Lois et Actes Annee 1916,
Edition officielle
.  Port-au-Prince:
Imprimerie Nationale, Directeur Edg. Chenet.



                       



Douglas, Paul H.



1927    “The American Occupation of Haiti I.” Political
Science Quarterly
. Vol. 42, (Jun., 1927): 229-258.



 



1927       
“The American Occupation of Haiti II.” Political Science
Quarterly
. Vol. 42, (Sep., 1927): 368-396.



 



1927       
“The National Railway of Haiti.” The Nation 124, no.
3211 (Jan. 19, 1927): 59-61.



 



Editors              



1920       
“The Concession of the National City Bank.” The Nation
111,



no.2880:
310



 



Editors



1927       
“The
Press in Haiti,” The Nation 125, no.3241: 167-168.



 



Hudicourt, Pierre              



[1923]  Anexion de la Republica de Haiti por los
Estados Unidos del Norte
[Memorandum dedicado a la Quinta Conferencia
Panamericana de Santiago de Chile en nombre de la Union Patriotica de
Haiti]  Santiago, Chile: Casa Amarilla.



 



Johnson, Harry 



1920       
“Haiti and its regeneration by the United States.” The
National Geographic Magazine
, Dec.: 497-505.



 



Johnson, James Weldon



1920       
“Self-Determining Haiti, I: The American Occupation.” The
Nation
111, no. 2878 (Aug. 28, 1920): 236-8.



 



1920       
“Self-Determining Haiti, IV: The Haitian People.” The
Nation
111, no. 2882 (Sept. 25, 1920)



available from haiti_occupation_series_03.shtml



 



Kelsey, Carl



1922    “The American Intervention in Haiti.” Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
C (March,
1922):109-199.



 



Leger, J.N. 



1907    Haiti: Her History and her Detractors.
Westport, Connecticut: Negro University Press, reprinted 1970.



 



Logan, Rayford W.



1929       
“Education in Haiti.” Journal of Negro History. Vol.
15, No. 4. (Oct.):



401-460. 



 



Logan, Rayford W.



1929    “Haiti: the Native Point of View,” Southern
Workman (Hampton Institute) LVIII, No. 1 (Jan. 1929): 36-40.



 



Logan, Rayford W.



             1927              The
Haze in Haiti.” The Nation 124, no. 3219 (Mar 16): 281-282.



 



Mathon, E.



1916    Annuaire de Legislation Haitiene publie.
Port-au-Prince: L’imprimerie de l’Abeille.



 



McCormick, Medill



1920    “Our Failure in Haiti.” The Nation
111, no. 2891 (Dec. 1): 615-616.



 



 



Millspaugh, Arthur C.



1931    Haiti Under American Control, 1915-1930.  Boston: World Peace Foundation.



 



Moravia, Charles and Ern. G. Chauvet,
Jolibois Fils, Jean Charles Pressoir,
Clamart Ricourt, Edmond Liautaud, Luc E. Fouche and P. Thoby.



 



             1927              “A Voice from a Haitian Jail.” Nation
125, no. 3241:
168



 



Pierre-Paul, Antoine



1929       
La Premiere Protestation Armee Contre l’Intervention
Americaine de 1915 et 260 Jours dans le maquis.
Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie
Panorama.



 



Price-Mars, Jean    



[1928]  Ainsi Parls L’Oncle[So Spoke the Uncle]. Trans.
by Magdaline W. Shannon, 1983. Washington, DC: Three Continents Press.



 



Seabrook, W. B.



1929       
The Magic Island. New York: Literary Guild.



 



Seligman, Herbert J.



             1920              “The Conquest of Haiti.” The
Nation
111, no. 2871 (July 10, 1920): 35-36.



 



Steedman, Mabel



             1939              Unknown to the World: Haiti.
London:  Hurst and Blackett.



 



Sylvain, Georges



[1950]  Dix Annees de Lutte: Pour la Liberte
1915-1925
. Vol. 1.  Port-au-Prince,
Henri Deschamps.



 



Thoby,
Perceval



1926              "Haiti
Misruled.” The Nation 122 no. 3170 (1926):376-9.



 



Walsh, Franklin P.



1922              “American Imperialism,” The
Nation
114, no. 2952: 115.



 



Weed, H. H.



1930    “Victory in Haiti. Nation 130, no.
3377 (Apr. 2): 378-80.



 



Secondary Sources:



 



Bellegarde Smith, Patrick



1982    Race, Class and Ideology: Haitian
Ideologies for Underdevelopment, 1806-1934
. New York: The American
Institute for Marxist Studies.



 



Blassingame, John W.



1969       
“The Press and American Intervention in Haiti and the
Dominican      Republic, 1904-1920.” Caribbean
Studies
9, no. 2: 27-43.




Castor, Suzy



           1971              La
ocupación norteamericana de Haití y sus consequencias (1915-1934).
Mexico,
Siglo XXI editores.



 



Chatelain, Joseph.



1954       
La Banque nationale: son histoire, ses problemes,
Collection du      Tricinquantenaire de
l’Independence d’Haiti. Lausanne: Imprimerie Held.



 



Dupuy, Alex



1989    Haiti
in the World Economy: Class, Race and Underdevelopment since 1970
.  Boulder: 
Westview Press.



 



Galeano, Eduardo



1996    Haiti, Despised by All. World Press Review, December 1996; available
from
http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/recent/despis ed.htm


 



Gaillard, Roger



1981    Les Blancs Debarquent. Vol. 3, Premier
ecrasement du Cacoisme.
 Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie le Natal.



 



1981    Les Blancs Debarquent. Vol. 4, La
Republique autoritaire.
Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie le
Natal.   



 



1982a  Les Blancs Debarquent. Vol. 5, Hinche
Mise en Croix.
 Port-au-Prince:
Imprimerie le Natal.



 



1982b Les Blancs Debarquent. Vol. 6, Charlemagne
Péralte, le caco.
Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie le Natal.



 



1998       
La Republique exterminatrice. Vol. 6, Antoine Simone
ou La Modification,
Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie le Natal.



 



Heinl, Robert Debs, Jr. and Nancy Gordon Heinl



1978   Written in blood: The Story of the Haitian
People, 1492-1971
.  Boston: Houghton
Mifflin.



 



 



Langley, Lester D.



1980       
The United States and the Caribbean, 1900-1970. Athens,
Georgia:



University of
Georgia Press, 1980.



 



Leyburn, James G.



1941       
The Haitian People. New Haven: Yale University Press.



 



McCrocklin, James H.



1956              Garde d’Haiti, Menasha, WI: George Banta Company.



 



Millet, Kethly



1976       
Les paysans haitiens et l'occupation americaine d'Haiti,
1915 1930.
  Quebec: Collectif
Paroles.



 



Mintz, Sidney



1966              “Introduction.” In The Haitian
People,
James G. Leyburn,  [1941]



New
Haven: Yale University Press.



 



Nicolas, Hogar



[1955]
L’occupation américaine d’Haiti: la revanche de l’histoire. Madrid:
Industrias Graficas Espana.  



 



                                                  



Paul, Edmond



1976       
Les causes de nos malheurs:  appel au people. Port-au-Prince: Fardin.



 



Renda, Mary A.



2001    Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the
culture of U.S. imperialism, 1915-1940. 
Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.



 



Schmidt, Hans



1971    The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934.
New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.    



             1987              Maverick Marine. Lexington,
KY: The University Press of Kentucky.



 



Shannon, Magdaline W.



1977       
“The U. S. Commission for the Study and Review of Conditions
in Haiti and its Relationship to President Hoover’s Latin American Policy.” Caribbean
Studies
15, no. 4: 53-72.



 



1996    Jean Price Mars, the Haitian Elite and
the American Occupation, 1915-1935.
London: St. Martin’s Press.



 



Trouillot, Michel-Rolph



             1990
             Haiti: State Against Nation. New York: Monthly Review Press.



 



Thomas, Lowell



1933              Old Gimlet Eye: The Adventures of Smedley D. Butler
as told to Lowell



                         Thomas.   New York: Farrar and
Rinehart.                          




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Posted: 2007 Feb 06 at 12:28am Quote bibil

LIBERTÉ OU LA MORT

Acte de l'Indépendance

Armée Indigène

Gonaïves, le 1er janvier 1804, an 1er de l'Indépendance

Aujourd'hui, premier janvier mil huit cent quatre, le Général en chef de l'armée indigène, accompagné des généraux, Chefs de l'armée, convoqués à l'effet de prendre les mesures qui doivent tendre au bonheur du pays:

Après avoir fait connaitre aux généraux assemblés, ses véritables intentions, d'assurer à jamais aux indigènes d'Haiti un gouvernement stable, objet de sa plus vive sollicitude: ce qu'il a fait par un discours qui tend à faire connaitre aux puissances étrangères la résolution de rendre le pays indépendant, et de jouir d'une liberté consacrée par le sang du peuple de cette île; et, après avoir recueilli les avis, a demandé que chacun des généraux assemblés prononçât le serment de renoncer à jamais à la France, de mourir plutôt que de vivre sous sa domination, et de combattre jusqu'au dernier soupir pour l'indépendance.

Les généraux, penétrés de ces principes sacrés, après avoir donné d'une voix unanime leur adhésion au projet bien manifesté d'indépendance, ont tous juré à la postérité, à l'univers entier, de renoncer à jamais à la France, et de mourir plutôt que de vivre sous sa domination.


------------------------------------------------------------ --------------------

Fait aux Gonaïves, ce premier Janvier mil huit cent quatre, et le premier jour de l'indépendance d' Haïti.

Signé: Dessalines, général en chef;

Christophe, Pétion, Clerveaux, Geffrard, Vernet, Gabart, généraux de division;

P. Romain, E. Gérin, F. Capois, Daut, Jean-Louis Francois, Férou, Cangé, L. Bazelais, Magloire Ambroise, J.-J Herne, Toussaint Brave, Yayou, généraux de brigade;

Bonnet, F. Papalier, Morelly, Chevalier, Marion, adjudants-généraux

Magny, Roux, chefs de brigade;

Chareron, B. Loret, Macajoux, Dupuy, Carbonne, Diaquoi aîné, Raphael, Malet, Derenoncourt, officiers de l'armée;

Boisrond Tonnerre, secrétaire
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Docteur Rosalvo Bobo, demi-frère de Tom Laraque candidat à la présidence d'Haiti et fils de Sylla Laraque




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Posted: 2007 Feb 10 at 6:39am Quote Excalibur

                             Le chateau Monchy-Humiere, l’une des nombreuses residences de Sylla Laraque en France.


 


 



 


 




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Posted: 2007 Feb 11 at 11:26am Quote Excalibur

Dora WOOLLEY


Pere: Joseph WOOLLEY 


Mere:  Henriette PRUD'HO 



(frères/soeurs:- Cécile LAROCHE née WOOLLEY- Emilie ÉLIE née WOOLLEY- Frédéric WOOLLEY- Henriette WOOLLEY- Emile WOOLLEY)


 


DESCENDANCE :



Avec Alexandre BOBO 


 1 ) Dr. Rosalvo BOBO (ca. 1873-30 novembre 1929) 



Avec Sylla LARAQUE 


 2 ) Tom LARAQUE (12 octobre 1878-ca. 1959)



Henry Alphonse Sylla LARAQUE (Tom Laraque)


o 12 octobre 1878 Haïti, Cap-Haïtien


+ ca. 1959 Mexique


Candidat a la presidence d’Haiti en 1946


Il aurait pu etre president, mais a ete ecarte par l’armee selon Maurepas Auguste dans son livre.


On comprend sa grande popularite vu qu’il etait le frere de Rosalvo Bobo.


Son slogan politique etait :TRAVAIL,ORDRE,METHODE d’où son surnom T.O.M



ASCENDANCE


Arriere grand parents : Jean-Baptiste Philizaire LARAQUE  et Zéline LEVEQUE


Grand-peres : Florimond LARAQUE et Joseph WOOLEY


Grand-meres :Elmire LORQUET  et Henriette PRUD'HO 


Pere :Sylla Wolsant LARAQUE 


Mere : Dora BOBO née WOOLLEY 



ax Anna MARQUET


bx Isabelle CORRIADO


cx Bellita VARGAS




DESCENDANCE :



Avec Anna MARQUET :


 1 ) Georges LARAQUE (ca1880) (ca. 1938) 


 2 ) André LARAQUE (ca1880)  


 3 ) Guy LARAQUE (ca1880) (ca. 1998)



Arbre genealogique de Henri (TOM) Laraque



Claude LEFEBVRE


Commandant de l'ile St Croix


o ca. 1613 France, Paris


+ vendredi 11 janvier 1697 Saint-Domingue, Léogane



ax Charlotte LEGRAND




DESCENDANCE





Avec Charlotte LEFEBVRE née LEGRAND 


 1 ) Marie-Rose LECOQ, THOMIN de VILLAROCHE née LEFEBVRE (ca. 1670)  


 2 ) Barbe LECOQ née LEFEBVRE (ca. 1675) 


 3 ) Jacques LEFEBVRE (ca. 1695-date inconnue)  


   



Jacques LEFEBVRE


o ca. 1695 Ile de Sainte-Croix, (Virgen Island)


(frères/soeurs:- Marie-Rose LECOQ, THOMIN de VILLAROCHE née LEFEBVRE- Barbe LECOQ née LEFEBVRE)



ax Anne A ROSSIGNOL,Saint-Domingue, Petite-Rivière de l'Artibonite, 02/09/1713


bx Marie Marguerite BELLANGER


cx Marie-Anne Françoise CAILLOT Saint-Domingue, Petite-Rivière de l'Artibonite




DESCENDANCE





Avec Anne A. LEFEBVRE née de ROSSIGNOL 


 1 ) Jacques Désiré LEFEBVRE (9 avril 1716-date inconnue)  



Avec Marguerite LEFEBVRE née BELLANGER 


 2 ) Louis LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE de MERCOEUR (28 octobre 1721-ca. 1803)  



Avec Marie-Anne Françoise LEFEBVRE née CAILLOT 


 3 ) Marie-Rose Françoise ROSSIGNOL née LEFEBVRE (28 avril 1723-16 février 1761) 



Louis LEFEBVRE


"Marquis de Mercoeur"


Procureur du Roy à Saint-Marc, Conseiller du Roi de France


o mardi 28 octobre 1721 Saint-Domingue, Petite-Rivière de l'Artibonite


+ ca. 1803 Saint-Domingue, Chaines des Matheux, tue par les bandes de Petit Noel Prieur



ax Marie Magdeleine BALAND




DESCENDANCE





Avec Marie Magdeleine LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE née BALAND  


 1 ) Marie Rose DEBAS née LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE (ca. 1754-date inconnue)  


 2 ) Sénateur Philippe LARAQUE (ca. 1755-19 mars 1832)  


 3 ) Cadet LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE (ca. 1767-date inconnue)  


 4 ) Marc Joseph LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE (ca. 1767-1 février 1802)  


 5 ) Julie LAFOREST née LEFEBVRE-LARAQUE (date inconnue-date inconnue)  



Avec ? 


 6 ) Louis Aimable LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE (1 octobre 1748-date inconnue) 



Philippe Lefèvre LARAQUE


Sénateur de la République - Jérémie (1830) - Conseil d'Etat Jérémie (1845)


o ca. 1755 , Saint-Christophe 


+ lundi 19 mars 1832 Haïti


(frères/soeurs:- Marie Rose DEBAS née LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE- Cadet LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE- Marc Joseph LEFEBVRE de LARAQUE (assassine par Sanite et Charles Belair sous les ordres de Toussaint Louverture)- Julie LAFOREST née LEFEBVRE-LARAQUE)



ax Saint-Domingue, Jérémie, 07/11/1782, Marie-Marthe d’ANDRESSOL


bx Uranie d’ETCHEGARRAYE




DESCENDANCE





Avec Marie-Marthe LARAQUE née d’ANDRESSOL 


 1 ) Louise Félicité ROUSSEL née LARAQUE (18 mai 1783-13 juin 1850)  


 2 ) Marie Rose PARET née LARAQUE (29 mars 1787)  


 3 ) Philizaire LARAQUE (ca. 1790-28 août 1845)  



Avec Uranie LARAQUE née d’ETCHEGARRAYE 


 4 ) Bonne LARAQUE (ca. 1793-8 juin 1849) 


 5 ) Jean-Baptiste Philizaire LARAQUE   


 6 ) Adélaïde LARAQUE  


 7 ) Pamela LARAQUE  


 8 ) Marceline GOSTALLE née LARAQUE (ca. 1809-ca. 1837)  


 9 ) Rose Marie-Madeleine Emilia LARAQUE (ca. 1841) 


 10 ) Emilie LARAQUE  


 11 ) Ernest LARAQUE  


 12 ) Hermance LARAQUE  




Jean-Baptiste Philizaire LARAQUE


Commandant Arrondissement de la Grand-Anse, jusqu'a l'entree de l'armee Soufrante, (les Piquets), Capitaine au 17eme Regiment


o ca. 1790 Saint-Domingue, Jérémie


+ 28 août 1845 Haïti, Jérémie


(frères/soeurs:- Louise Félicité ROUSSEL née LARAQUE- Marie Rose PARET née LARAQUE)



ax Zéline LEVEQUE




DESCENDANCE





Avec Zéline LARAQUE née LÉVÊQUE 


 1 ) Ferronet LARAQUE (date inconnue-date inconnue)  


 2 ) Fernand LARAQUE (date inconnue-date inconnue) 


 3 ) Philibert LARAQUE (24 août 1848-24 août 1848)  


 4 ) Alzire ALCIDE née LARAQUE (date inconnue-date inconnue)  


 5 ) Florimond LARAQUE (date inconnue-date inconnue)  


 6 ) Sannon LARAQUE (date inconnue-date inconnue) 




Florimond LARAQUE


o ca. 1816 Haïti, Port-au-Prince


(frères/soeurs:- Ferronet LARAQUE- Fernand LARAQUE- Philibert LARAQUE- Alzire ALCIDE née LARAQUE- Sannon LARAQUE)



ax Marguerite Elmire LORQUET




DESCENDANCE





Avec Elmire LARAQUE née LORQUET 


 1 ) Philippe LARAQUE (2) (ca. 1848-date inconnue)  


 2 ) Sylla LARAQUE (ca. 1850-ca. 1924)  



Sylla Wolsant LARAQUE


o ca. 1850 Haïti, Jérémie


+ ca. 1924 France, Paris (75)


(frères/soeurs:- Philippe LARAQUE (2))



ax Olivia DUVIVIER


bx Haïti, Port-au-Prince, 15/01/1883, Philomène DERENONCOURT


cx Dora WOOLLEY


dx Camille Isabelle Inès SAINT-JACQUES


ex NN BARRAULT


fx NN HUTTINOT




DESCENDANCE





Avec Olivia LARAQUE née DUVIVIER 


 1 ) Léonce LARAQUE (ca. 1872-ca. 1942)  



Avec Philomène LARAQUE née DERENONCOURT 


 2 ) Alice P. LARAQUE (ca. 1877) 


 3 ) Eugénie P. LARAQUE (ca. 1882-ca. 1886) 


 4 ) Maria P. LARAQUE (17 janvier 1885-ca. 1966) 


 5 ) Eugène P. LARAQUE (ca. 1888-ca. 1889) 


 6 ) Louis P. LARAQUE (ca. 1891) 


 7 ) Maurice LARAQUE (30 mars 1895) 


 8 ) Andréa P. LARAQUE (ca. 1896) 


 9 ) Anne-Marie Marguerite LARAQUE (27 mars 1897-15 décembre 1997)  


 10 ) Marcelle LARAQUE (ca. 1898-ca. 1977)  


 11 ) René LARAQUE (ca. 1898-ca. 1918) 


 12 ) Suzanne LARAQUE (ca. 1902-ca. 1997) 



Avec Dora BOBO née WOOLLEY 


 13 ) Tom LARAQUE (12 octobre 1878-ca. 1959)  



Avec Camille Isabelle Inès LARAQUE née SAINT-JACQUES 


 14 ) Roland LARAQUE (1896) (ca. 1896-ca. 1963) 


 15 ) Rachel SAINT-JACQUES (ca. 1899-ca. 1974) 


 16 ) Sylla SAINT-JACQUES (ca. 1900-ca. 1970) 


 17 ) Camille Eugène SAINT-JACQUES (ca. 1902-ca. 1986) 


 18 ) Mireille LARAQUE (ca. 1904-ca. 1995) 


 19 ) Jean-Raymond Benjamin LARAQUE (ca. 1907-ca. 1940) 


 20 ) Raymond LARAQUE (1909) (ca. 1909-ca. 1923) 


 21 ) Simone AUBRY née LARAQUE (1912) (ca. 1912-19 août 1996) 


 22 ) Robert LARAQUE (1913) (ca. 1913-ca. 1934) 



Avec Dame LARAQUE née BARRAULT 


 23 ) Jean BARRAULT 



Avec Dame LARAQUE née HUTTINOT 


 24 ) Roger HUTTINOT (ca. 1898-ca. 1966) 









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Posted: 2007 Feb 11 at 11:52am Quote Sans-Souci



























Anténor Firmin
(1850-1911°)



   
photo anténor firmin
 
Anténor
Firmin est né en 1850. Issu d'une famille pauvre,
il réussit néanmoins à faire d'excellentes
études, entra dans l'enseignement et, après
s'être inscrit au barreau, se lança dans la
politique et milita toute sa vie pour le parti Libéral.
Pour réfuter les théories racistes d'Artur
Gobineau, Firmin, membre de la Société d'anthropologie
de Paris, y publia en 1885 un gros ouvrage intitulé
De l'égalité des races humaines. Le livre
fit connaître son auteur dans les milieux intellectuels
français et, dans sa patrie, lui assura une immense
célébrité. Le président Florvil
Hyppolite
le nomma ministre du Commerce, puis des
Affaires étrangères. Sa compétence
et son honnêteté ayant gêné, on
le força bientôt à démissionner.
Avant de démissionner également du ministère
des Affaires étrangères en 1891, il réussit
à empêcher l'acquisition par les Etats-Unis
du Môle
Saint-Nicolas
, baie stratégiquemen située
sur la côte nord, que convoitait la marine américaine
pour y construire une base navale. Devant les tergiversations
haïtiennes, la Navy finira par renoncer, et aller s'installer
à Guantanamo, dans l'île voisine de Cuba.
 
Avoir
défendu victorieusement l'intégrité
territoriale de la République rendit Firmin immensément
populaire. Le président Tirésias Simon Sam
le rappela aux Finances cinq ans plus tard, mais Firmin,
qui était d'un naturel orgueilleux, se mit le Sénat
à dos; il fut à nouveau forcé de démissionner,
et s'embarqua pour la France. Sam renversé en 1902,
Firmin rentra au pays, déclara sa condidature à
la présidence et se lança dans la campagne
électorale. Son principal allié était
le vieux général Nord Alexis
qui, alléché lui-même par le pouvoir
présidentiel, se retourna contre lui et l'obligea
à fuir la capitale. Firmin tenta de renverser Alexis
par les armes avec ses partisans de la province, mais fut
battu sur le terrain et dut se réfugier dans l'île
danoise de Saint-Thomas. Ses camarades d'exil projetèrent
d'envahir Haïti sous le commandement pour chasser Alexis
de la présidence. Bien que les autorités des
Etats-Unis aient confisqué les armes que les Firministes
y avaient achetées en privision de l'invasion, ils
persistèrent, débarquèrent et furent
rapidement décimés. Anténor Firmin
eut la vie sauve in extremis grâce à l'intervention
énergique de l'ambassadeur de France. Il regagna
Saint-Thomas, mais ce fut la fin de sa vie politique. Effrayés
par sa popularité, les gouvernements successifs de
son pays le maintinrent à l'écart dans les
législations de Londres, puis de Paris. Firmin mourut
à Saint-Thomas en 1911, dans l'amertume et la désillusion.

 









L'idéologie de Firmin est
celle de la plupart des Haïtiens de bonne volonté.
Les principes qu'il partage avec les autres défenseurs
d'haïtianité, sont inattaquables ; renvoyer
les militaires à leurs casernes et confier
le gouvernement à des civils compétents;
procéder à des élections (auxquelles
il était toutefois sous-entendu que seuls
les "gens de bien" participeraient, les
pauvres paysans étant pour l'heure bien trop
ignorants et sous-développés pour
aller aux urnes); encourager l'esprit civique; imposer
l'honnêté dans toutes les branches
de l'administration; encourager l'industrie et le
commerce; entreprendre de grands travaux d'infrastructure;
éduquer les masses en construisant des écoles
primaires...Il n'y a pas lieu de douter de la sincérité
de Firmin, mais force est de constater que ce sont
là les mêmes voeux pieux que les politiciens
haïtiens proclament et ont toujours proclamés,
sans prendre en ligne de compte la façon
pratique de mener à bien cet admirable clamés,
sans prendre en ligne de compte la façon
pratique de mener à bien cet admirable programme.


 















 

 


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Jean
Price-Mars déplore, et précisément
dans le livre qu'il a consacré à Firmin,

"Cette propension presque pathologique
qui nous pousse au verbalisme creux et sonore dont
nous gargarisons comme si les mots que nous jetons
aux quatre vents étaient devenus l'accomplissement
d'actes authentiques dont nous devions nous louer

"(Anténor Firmin par lui même,
p.32)


Les idéologies de la génération
suivante, et tout particulièrement Dantès
Bellegarde et son adversaire Jean Price-Mars (voir
p.000) se réclameron des "chercheurs
et défenseurs d'Haïtianité"
dont les idées généreuses attendent
toujours un début d'application.


 


Bibliographie:

De l'égalité des races humaines (anthropologie
positive). Paris: F. Pichon, 1885; Paris: L'Harmattan, 2003;
Montréal: Mémoire d'encrier, 2005.

Haïti au point de vue politique, administratif et économique:
conférence faite au Grand cercle de Paris, le 8 décembre
1891. Paris: F. Pichon, 1891.

Diplomate et diplomatie: lettre ouverte à M. Solon
Ménos. Cap-Haïtien: Imprimerie du Progrès,
1899.

M. Roosevelt, président des États-Unis et
la République d'Haïti. New York: Hamilton Bank
Note Engraving and Printing Company / Paris, F. Pichon et
Durand-Auzias, 1905.

Lettres de Saint Thomas. Études sociologiques, historiques
et littéraires. Paris: V. Girard & E. Brière,
1910.

L'effort dans le mal. Port-au-Prince: Imprimerie H. Chauvet,
1911.




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